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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 341
 342    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 343        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 348        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 349        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 350        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 351        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 352    }
 353
 354    STAR_MAPPING = {
 355        "except": "EXCEPT",
 356        "replace": "REPLACE",
 357    }
 358
 359    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 360        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 361        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 362        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 363        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 364        "DAYS": "DAY",
 365        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 366        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 367        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 368        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 369    }
 370
 371    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 372        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 373        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 374        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 375        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 376        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 377            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 378            if e.args.get("windows")
 379            else ""
 380        ),
 381    }
 382
 383    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 384
 385    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 386
 387    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 388    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 389
 390    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 391        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 392        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 396        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 398        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 403        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 404        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 412        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 413        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 415        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 416        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 418        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 420        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 426        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 427        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 430        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 432        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 435        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 438        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 451        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 452        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467    }
 468
 469    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 470    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 471
 472    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 473    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 474        exp.Create,
 475        exp.Delete,
 476        exp.Drop,
 477        exp.From,
 478        exp.Insert,
 479        exp.Join,
 480        exp.Select,
 481        exp.Union,
 482        exp.Update,
 483        exp.Where,
 484        exp.With,
 485    )
 486
 487    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 488    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 489        exp.Binary,
 490        exp.Union,
 491    )
 492
 493    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 494    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 495        exp.Column,
 496        exp.Literal,
 497        exp.Neg,
 498        exp.Paren,
 499    )
 500
 501    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 502        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 503        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 504        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 505        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 506    }
 507
 508    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 509    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 510
 511    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 512
 513    __slots__ = (
 514        "pretty",
 515        "identify",
 516        "normalize",
 517        "pad",
 518        "_indent",
 519        "normalize_functions",
 520        "unsupported_level",
 521        "max_unsupported",
 522        "leading_comma",
 523        "max_text_width",
 524        "comments",
 525        "dialect",
 526        "unsupported_messages",
 527        "_escaped_quote_end",
 528        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 529    )
 530
 531    def __init__(
 532        self,
 533        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 534        identify: str | bool = False,
 535        normalize: bool = False,
 536        pad: int = 2,
 537        indent: int = 2,
 538        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 539        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 540        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 541        leading_comma: bool = False,
 542        max_text_width: int = 80,
 543        comments: bool = True,
 544        dialect: DialectType = None,
 545    ):
 546        import sqlglot
 547        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 548
 549        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 550        self.identify = identify
 551        self.normalize = normalize
 552        self.pad = pad
 553        self._indent = indent
 554        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 555        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 556        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 557        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 558        self.comments = comments
 559        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 560
 561        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 562        self.normalize_functions = (
 563            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 564        )
 565
 566        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 567        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 568            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 569        )
 570        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 571            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 572        )
 573
 574    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 575        """
 576        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 577
 578        Args:
 579            expression: The syntax tree.
 580            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 581                it is safer to copy.
 582
 583        Returns:
 584            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 585        """
 586        if copy:
 587            expression = expression.copy()
 588
 589        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 590
 591        self.unsupported_messages = []
 592        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 593
 594        if self.pretty:
 595            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 596
 597        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 598            return sql
 599
 600        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 601            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 602                logger.warning(msg)
 603        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 604            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 605
 606        return sql
 607
 608    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 609        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 610        if (
 611            not expression.parent
 612            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 613            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 614        ):
 615            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 616
 617            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 618
 619        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 620            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 621
 622            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 623
 624        return expression
 625
 626    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 627        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 628            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 629        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 630
 631    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 632        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 633
 634    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 635        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 636
 637    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 638        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 639        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 640        return comment
 641
 642    def maybe_comment(
 643        self,
 644        sql: str,
 645        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 646        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 647        separated: bool = False,
 648    ) -> str:
 649        comments = (
 650            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 651            if self.comments
 652            else None
 653        )
 654
 655        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 656            return sql
 657
 658        comments_sql = " ".join(
 659            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 660        )
 661
 662        if not comments_sql:
 663            return sql
 664
 665        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 666
 667        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 668            return (
 669                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 670                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 671                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 672            )
 673
 674        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 675
 676    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 677        this_sql = self.indent(
 678            (
 679                self.sql(expression)
 680                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 681                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 682            ),
 683            level=1,
 684            pad=0,
 685        )
 686        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 687
 688    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 689        original = self.identify
 690        self.identify = False
 691        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 692        self.identify = original
 693        return result
 694
 695    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 696        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 697            return name.upper()
 698        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 699            return name.lower()
 700        return name
 701
 702    def indent(
 703        self,
 704        sql: str,
 705        level: int = 0,
 706        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 707        skip_first: bool = False,
 708        skip_last: bool = False,
 709    ) -> str:
 710        if not self.pretty:
 711            return sql
 712
 713        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 714        lines = sql.split("\n")
 715
 716        return "\n".join(
 717            (
 718                line
 719                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 720                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 721            )
 722            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 723        )
 724
 725    def sql(
 726        self,
 727        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 728        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 729        comment: bool = True,
 730    ) -> str:
 731        if not expression:
 732            return ""
 733
 734        if isinstance(expression, str):
 735            return expression
 736
 737        if key:
 738            value = expression.args.get(key)
 739            if value:
 740                return self.sql(value)
 741            return ""
 742
 743        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 744
 745        if callable(transform):
 746            sql = transform(self, expression)
 747        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 748            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 749
 750            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 751                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 752            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 753                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 754            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 755                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 756            else:
 757                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 758        else:
 759            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 760
 761        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 762
 763    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 764        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 765        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 766        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 767
 768    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 769        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 770        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        options = expression.args.get("options")
 772        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 773        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 774        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 775        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 776        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 777
 778    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 779        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 780            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 781        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 782        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 783
 784    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 785        return ".".join(
 786            self.sql(part)
 787            for part in (
 788                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 789                expression.args.get("db"),
 790                expression.args.get("table"),
 791                expression.args.get("this"),
 792            )
 793            if part
 794        )
 795
 796    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 797        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 798
 799        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 800            join_mark = ""
 801            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 802
 803        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 804
 805    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 807        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 808        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 809        return f"{position}{this}"
 810
 811    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 812        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 813        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 814        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 815        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 816        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 817        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 818        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 819        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 820
 821        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 822            kind = ""
 823
 824        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 825
 826    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 829        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 830
 831    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 834            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 835        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 836            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 837        else:
 838            persisted = ""
 839        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 840
 841    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 842        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 843
 844    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 845        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 846            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 847        else:
 848            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849
 850        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 851
 852    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 853        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 854    ) -> str:
 855        this = ""
 856        if expression.this is not None:
 857            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 858            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 859
 860        start = expression.args.get("start")
 861        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 862        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 863        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 864        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 865        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 866        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 867        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 868        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 869        cycle_sql = ""
 870
 871        if cycle is not None:
 872            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 873            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 874
 875        sequence_opts = ""
 876        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 877            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 878            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 879
 880        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 881        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 882
 883        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 884
 885    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 886        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 887    ) -> str:
 888        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 889        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 890        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 891
 892    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 893        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 894    ) -> str:
 895        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 896
 897    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 898        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 899
 900    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 901        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 902
 903    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 904        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 905        if desc is not None:
 906            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 907        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 908
 909    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 911        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 912        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 913        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 914        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 915        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 916        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 917
 918    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 919        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 920
 921    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 922        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 923        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 924        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 925
 926        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 927
 928        properties_sql = ""
 929        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 930            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 931        ):
 932            properties_sql = self.sql(
 933                exp.Properties(
 934                    expressions=[
 935                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 937                    ]
 938                )
 939            )
 940
 941        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 942        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 943
 944        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 945        if expression_sql:
 946            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 947
 948            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 949                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 950                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 951                        exp.Properties(
 952                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 953                        ),
 954                        wrapped=False,
 955                    )
 956                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 957                else:
 958                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 959
 960        postindex_props_sql = ""
 961        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 962            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 963                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 964                wrapped=False,
 965                prefix=" ",
 966            )
 967
 968        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 969        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 970        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 971
 972        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 973        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 974
 975        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 976        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 977            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 978                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 979                sep=" ",
 980                prefix=" ",
 981                wrapped=False,
 982            )
 983
 984        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 985
 986        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 988            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 989                exp.Properties(
 990                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 991                ),
 992                sep=" ",
 993                prefix=" ",
 994                wrapped=False,
 995            )
 996
 997        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 998        no_schema_binding = (
 999            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1000        )
1001
1002        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1003        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1004
1005        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1007
1008    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1009        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1010        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1011        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1012        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1013        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1014        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1015        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1016        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1017        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1018        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1019
1020        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1021        if cache is None:
1022            cache_str = ""
1023        elif cache is True:
1024            cache_str = " CACHE"
1025        else:
1026            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1027
1028        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1029        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1030
1031        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1032
1033    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1035        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1036        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1037        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1038
1039    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1040        style = expression.args.get("style")
1041        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1042        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1043
1044    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1045        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1046        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1047
1048    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1049        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1050        if with_:
1051            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1052        return sql
1053
1054    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1055        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1056        recursive = (
1057            "RECURSIVE "
1058            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1059            else ""
1060        )
1061
1062        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1063
1064    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1065        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1066
1067        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1068        if materialized is False:
1069            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1070        elif materialized:
1071            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1072
1073        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1074
1075    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1076        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1077        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1078        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1079
1080        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1081            columns = ""
1082            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1083
1084        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1085            alias = "_t"
1086
1087        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1088
1089    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1091        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1092            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1093        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1094
1095    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1097        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1098            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1099        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1100
1101    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1103        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1104            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1105        return this
1106
1107    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1109        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1110
1111        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1112            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1113            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1114
1115        if escape:
1116            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1117        else:
1118            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1119
1120        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1121        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1122
1123    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1124        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1125        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1126
1127    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1129        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1130        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1131        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1132
1133    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1134        type_value = expression.this
1135
1136        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1137            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1138        else:
1139            type_sql = (
1140                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1141                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1142                else type_value
1143            )
1144
1145        nested = ""
1146        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1147        values = ""
1148
1149        if interior:
1150            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1151                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1152                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1153                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1154                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1155                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1156            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1157                nested = f" {interior}"
1158            else:
1159                nested = f"({interior})"
1160
1161        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1162        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1163            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1165        ):
1166            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1167
1168        return type_sql
1169
1170    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1171        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1172        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1173        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1174        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1175
1176    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1179        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1180        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1181        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1182        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1183        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1184        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1185        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1186        if self.RETURNING_END:
1187            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1188        else:
1189            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1190        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1191
1192    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1194        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1195        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1196        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1197        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1198        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1199        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1200        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1201        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1202        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1203        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1204
1205    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1206        return self.set_operations(expression)
1207
1208    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1209        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1210
1211    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1212        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1213        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1214        count = expression.args.get("count")
1215        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1216        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1217            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1218        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1219        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1220
1221    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1222        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1223            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1224            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1225            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1226
1227        agg = expression.this
1228        agg_arg = agg.this
1229        cond = expression.expression.this
1230        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1231        return self.sql(agg)
1232
1233    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1234        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1235            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1236            return ""
1237
1238        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1239
1240    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1241        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1242        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1243        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1244        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1245        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1246        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1247        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1248        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1249        if include:
1250            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1251        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1252        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1253        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1254        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1255
1256        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1257
1258    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1259        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1260        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1261        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1262        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1264        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1265        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1266
1267        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1268
1269        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1270        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1271
1272    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1273        text = expression.name
1274        lower = text.lower()
1275        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1276        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1277        if (
1278            expression.quoted
1279            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1280            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1281            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1282        ):
1283            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1284        return text
1285
1286    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1287        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1288        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1289        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1290        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1291        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1292
1293    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1294        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1295        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1296
1297    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1298        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1299
1300    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1301        root_properties = []
1302        with_properties = []
1303
1304        for p in expression.expressions:
1305            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1306            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1307                with_properties.append(p)
1308            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1309                root_properties.append(p)
1310
1311        return self.root_properties(
1312            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1313        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1314
1315    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1316        if properties.expressions:
1317            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1318        return ""
1319
1320    def properties(
1321        self,
1322        properties: exp.Properties,
1323        prefix: str = "",
1324        sep: str = ", ",
1325        suffix: str = "",
1326        wrapped: bool = True,
1327    ) -> str:
1328        if properties.expressions:
1329            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1330            if expressions:
1331                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1332                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1333        return ""
1334
1335    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1336        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1337
1338    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1339        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1340        for p in properties.expressions:
1341            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1342            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1343                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1344            else:
1345                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1346
1347        return properties_locs
1348
1349    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1350        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1351            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1352        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1353
1354    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1355        property_cls = expression.__class__
1356        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1357            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1358
1359        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1360        if not property_name:
1361            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1362
1363        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1364
1365    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1366        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1367            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1368            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1369
1370            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1371            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1372                like = f"({like})"
1373
1374            return like
1375
1376        if expression.expressions:
1377            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1378
1379        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1380        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1381
1382    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1383        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1384        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1385        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1386
1387    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1388        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1389        local = expression.args.get("local")
1390        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1391        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1392        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1393        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1394        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1395
1396    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1397        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1398        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1399        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1400
1401    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1402        if expression.args.get("default"):
1403            property = "DEFAULT"
1404        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1405            property = "ON"
1406        else:
1407            property = "OFF"
1408        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1409
1410    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1411        if expression.args.get("no"):
1412            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1413        if expression.args.get("default"):
1414            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1415
1416        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1417        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1418
1419    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1420        default = expression.args.get("default")
1421        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1422        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1423        if default or minimum or maximum:
1424            if default:
1425                prop = "DEFAULT"
1426            elif minimum:
1427                prop = "MINIMUM"
1428            else:
1429                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1430            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1431        units = expression.args.get("units")
1432        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1433        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1434
1435    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1436        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1437        always = expression.args.get("always")
1438        default = expression.args.get("default")
1439        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1440        never = expression.args.get("never")
1441
1442        if autotemp is not None:
1443            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1444        elif always:
1445            prop = "ALWAYS"
1446        elif default:
1447            prop = "DEFAULT"
1448        elif manual:
1449            prop = "MANUAL"
1450        elif never:
1451            prop = "NEVER"
1452        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1453
1454    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1455        no = expression.args.get("no")
1456        no = " NO" if no else ""
1457        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1458        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1459        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1460        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1461        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1462
1463    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1464        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1465            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1466        if expression.this:
1467            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1469            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1470
1471        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1472        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1473        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1474
1475    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1477
1478        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1479        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1480            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1481        else:
1482            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1483
1484        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1485
1486    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1487        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1488        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1489        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1490        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1491        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1492        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1493        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1494
1495    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1496        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1497        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1498        statistics_sql = ""
1499        if statistics is not None:
1500            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1501        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1502
1503    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1504        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1505
1506        if expression.this:
1507            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1509
1510            if expression.expression:
1511                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1512                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1513
1514            sql = f"{sql})"
1515
1516        return f"{sql})"
1517
1518    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1519        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1520        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1521
1522        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1523            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1524        else:
1525            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1526
1527        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1528        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1529        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1530        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1531        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1532        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1533        if is_function:
1534            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1535        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1536
1537        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1538        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1539        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1540        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1541        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1542        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1543        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1544        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1545
1546        if self.RETURNING_END:
1547            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1548        else:
1549            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1550
1551        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1552        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1553
1554    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1555        return self.set_operations(expression)
1556
1557    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1558        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1559
1560    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1561        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1562
1563    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1565        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1567        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1568        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1569
1570    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1571        return expression.name
1572
1573    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1574        return expression.name
1575
1576    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1577        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1578
1579        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1580        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1581
1582        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1583        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1584        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1585
1586        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1587        if expressions:
1588            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1589            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1590
1591        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1592
1593    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1594        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1595
1596    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1597        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1598        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1599        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1600        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1601        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1602        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1603        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1604        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1605        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1606        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1607        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1608        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1609        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1610
1611    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1612        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1613
1614    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1615        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1616        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1617        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1618        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1619
1620    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1622        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1623        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1624        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1625
1626    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1627        return ".".join(
1628            self.sql(part)
1629            for part in (
1630                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1631                expression.args.get("db"),
1632                expression.args.get("this"),
1633            )
1634            if part is not None
1635        )
1636
1637    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1638        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1639        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1640        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1641        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1642        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1643        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1644        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1645        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1646        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1647        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1648        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1649        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1650        joins = self.indent(
1651            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1652        )
1653        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1654
1655        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1656        if file_format:
1657            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1658            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1659            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1660
1661        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1662        if ordinality:
1663            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1664            alias = ""
1665
1666        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1667        if when:
1668            table = f"{table} {when}"
1669
1670        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1671
1672    def tablesample_sql(
1673        self,
1674        expression: exp.TableSample,
1675        sep: str = " AS ",
1676        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1677    ) -> str:
1678        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1679            table = expression.this.copy()
1680            table.set("alias", None)
1681            this = self.sql(table)
1682            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1683        else:
1684            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1685            alias = ""
1686
1687        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1688        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1689        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1690        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1691        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1692        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1693        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1694        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1695        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1696
1697        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1698        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1699            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1700
1701        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1702        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1703            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1704
1705        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1706        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1707            expr = f"({expr})"
1708
1709        return (
1710            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1711        )
1712
1713    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1714        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1715
1716        if expression.this:
1717            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718            if not expressions:
1719                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1720
1721            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1722            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1723            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1724            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1725            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1726
1727        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1728        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1729        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1730        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1731        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1732        if include_nulls is not None:
1733            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1734        else:
1735            nulls = ""
1736        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1737
1738    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1739        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1740        kind = expression.text("kind")
1741        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1742        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1743
1744    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1745        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1746
1747    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1749        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1750        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1751        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1752        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1753        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1754        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1755        if self.RETURNING_END:
1756            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1757        else:
1758            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1759        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1760        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1761
1762    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1763        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1764
1765        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1766        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1767            args = self.expressions(expression)
1768            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1769            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1770            values = (
1771                f"({values})"
1772                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1773                else values
1774            )
1775            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1776
1777        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1778        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1779        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1780
1781        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1782
1783        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1784            row = tup.expressions
1785
1786            if i == 0 and column_names:
1787                row = [
1788                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1789                ]
1790
1791            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1792
1793        if self.pretty:
1794            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1795            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1796            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1797            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1798            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1799
1800        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1801        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1802        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1803
1804    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1805        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1806
1807    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1808        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1809        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1810        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1811
1812    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1813        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1814
1815    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1816        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1817        if group_by_all is True:
1818            modifier = " ALL"
1819        elif group_by_all is False:
1820            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1821        else:
1822            modifier = ""
1823
1824        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1825
1826        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1827        grouping_sets = (
1828            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1829        )
1830
1831        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1832        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1833            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1834        else:
1835            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1836            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1837
1838        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1839        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1840            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1841        else:
1842            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1843            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1844
1845        groupings = csv(
1846            grouping_sets,
1847            cube_sql,
1848            rollup_sql,
1849            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1850            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1851        )
1852
1853        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1854            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1855
1856        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1857
1858    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1859        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1860        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1861
1862    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1863        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1864        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1865        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1866        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1867        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1868        return start + connect
1869
1870    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1871        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1872
1873    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1874        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1875            side = None
1876        else:
1877            side = expression.side
1878
1879        op_sql = " ".join(
1880            op
1881            for op in (
1882                expression.method,
1883                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1884                side,
1885                expression.kind,
1886                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1887            )
1888            if op
1889        )
1890        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1891        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1892        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1893        using = expression.args.get("using")
1894
1895        if not on_sql and using:
1896            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1897
1898        this = expression.this
1899        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1900
1901        if on_sql:
1902            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1903            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1904            if using:
1905                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1906            else:
1907                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1908        elif not op_sql:
1909            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1910                return f" {this_sql}"
1911
1912            return f", {this_sql}"
1913
1914        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1915        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1916
1917    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1918        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1919        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1920        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1921
1922    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1923        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1924
1925        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1926        if cross_apply is True:
1927            op = "INNER JOIN "
1928        elif cross_apply is False:
1929            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1930        else:
1931            op = ""
1932
1933        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1934
1935    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1936        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1937
1938        if expression.args.get("view"):
1939            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1940            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1941            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1942            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1943            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1944            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1945
1946        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1947        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1948        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1949
1950    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952
1953        args = [
1954            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1955            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1956            if e
1957        ]
1958
1959        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1960        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1962        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1963
1964        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1965
1966    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        value = expression.expression
1969        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1970        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1971        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1972        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1973
1974    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1975        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1976        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1978        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1979        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1980        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1981        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1982        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1983
1984    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1985        expressions = (
1986            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1987        )
1988        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1989        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1990
1991    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1992        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1993
1994    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1995        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1996            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1997            return ""
1998
1999        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2000        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2001        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2002        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2003
2004        if wait is not None:
2005            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2006                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2007            else:
2008                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2009
2010        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2011
2012    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2013        text = expression.this or ""
2014        if expression.is_string:
2015            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2016        return text
2017
2018    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2019        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2020            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2021            text = "".join(
2022                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2023            )
2024
2025        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2026            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2027        )
2028
2029    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2030        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2031        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2032        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2033        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2034        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2035        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2036        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2037        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2038        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2039        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2040        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2041
2042    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2043        return "NULL"
2044
2045    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2046        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2047
2048    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2050        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2051        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2052        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2053        interpolated_values = [
2054            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2055            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2056        ]
2057        interpolate = (
2058            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2059        )
2060        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2061
2062    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2063        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2064        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2065        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2066        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2067        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2068        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2069        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2070
2071    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2072        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2073
2074    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2075        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2076
2077    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2078        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2079
2080    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2081        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2082        asc = not desc
2083
2084        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2085        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2086        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2087        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2088        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2089
2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2091
2092        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2093        nulls_sort_change = ""
2094        if nulls_first and (
2095            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2096        ):
2097            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2098        elif (
2099            nulls_last
2100            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2101            and not nulls_are_last
2102        ):
2103            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2104
2105        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2106        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2107            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2108            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2109                self.unsupported(
2110                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2111                )
2112                nulls_sort_change = ""
2113            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2114                if expression.this.is_int:
2115                    self.unsupported(
2116                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2117                    )
2118                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2119                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2120                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2121                nulls_sort_change = ""
2122
2123        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2124        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2125
2126        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2127
2128    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2129        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2130        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2131
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133
2134        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2135
2136    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2137        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2138        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2139        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2140        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2141        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2142        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2143        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2144        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2145        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2146        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2147        definition_sqls = [
2148            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2149            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2150        ]
2151        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2152        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2153        body = "".join(
2154            (
2155                partition,
2156                order,
2157                measures,
2158                rows,
2159                after,
2160                pattern,
2161                define,
2162            )
2163        )
2164        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2165        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2166        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2167
2168    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2169        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2170
2171        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2172            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2173        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2174            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2175
2176        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2177        if options:
2178            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2179
2180        return csv(
2181            *sqls,
2182            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2183            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2184            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2185            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2186            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2187            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2188            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2189            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2190            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2191            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2192            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2193            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2194            options,
2195            sep="",
2196        )
2197
2198    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2199        return ""
2200
2201    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2202        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2203    ) -> t.List[str]:
2204        return [
2205            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2206            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2207        ]
2208
2209    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2210        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2211        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2212        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2213
2214    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2215        into = expression.args.get("into")
2216        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2217            into.pop()
2218
2219        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2220        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2221        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2222        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2223
2224        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2225        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2226            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2227            limit.pop()
2228        else:
2229            top = ""
2230
2231        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2232
2233        if kind:
2234            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2235                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2236            else:
2237                if kind == "STRUCT":
2238                    expressions = self.expressions(
2239                        sqls=[
2240                            self.sql(
2241                                exp.Struct(
2242                                    expressions=[
2243                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2244                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2245                                        else e
2246                                        for e in expression.expressions
2247                                    ]
2248                                )
2249                            )
2250                        ]
2251                    )
2252                kind = ""
2253
2254        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2255        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2256        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2257        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2258        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2259            expression,
2260            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2261            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2262            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2263        )
2264
2265        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2266
2267        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2268            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2269                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2270            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2271                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2272            else:
2273                table_kind = ""
2274            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2275
2276        return sql
2277
2278    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2281        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2282
2283    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2284        if expression.expressions:
2285            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2286        return ""
2287
2288    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2289        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2290        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2291        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2292        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2293        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2294
2295    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2297        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2298
2299    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2301        kind = expression.text("kind")
2302        if kind:
2303            kind = f"{kind}."
2304        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2305
2306    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2307        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2308
2309    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2310        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2311        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2312
2313        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2314        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2315
2316        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2317        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2318
2319    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2320        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2321        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2322
2323    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2324        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2325            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2326            order = expression.args.get("order")
2327
2328            if limit or order:
2329                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2330
2331                if limit:
2332                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2333                if order:
2334                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2335                return self.sql(select)
2336
2337        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2338        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2339
2340        while stack:
2341            node = stack.pop()
2342
2343            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2344                stack.append(node.expression)
2345                stack.append(
2346                    self.maybe_comment(
2347                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2348                        comments=node.comments,
2349                        separated=True,
2350                    )
2351                )
2352                stack.append(node.this)
2353            else:
2354                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2355
2356        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2357        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2359
2360    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2361        return self.set_operations(expression)
2362
2363    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2364        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2365        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2366        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2367        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2368
2369    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2370        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2371
2372        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2373        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2374
2375        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2376            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2377                alias.append("columns", offset)
2378
2379        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2380            columns = alias.columns
2381            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2382        else:
2383            alias = self.sql(alias)
2384
2385        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2386        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2387            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2388        else:
2389            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2390                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2391            elif offset:
2392                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2393            else:
2394                suffix = alias
2395
2396        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2397
2398    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2399        return ""
2400
2401    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2402        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2403        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2404
2405    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2408        order = expression.args.get("order")
2409        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2410        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2411        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2412        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2413
2414        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2415
2416        first = expression.args.get("first")
2417        if first is None:
2418            first = ""
2419        else:
2420            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2421
2422        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2423            return f"{this} {alias}"
2424
2425        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2426        return f"{this} ({args})"
2427
2428    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2429        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2430        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2431
2432    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2433        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2434        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2435        end = (
2436            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2437            or "CURRENT ROW"
2438        )
2439        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2440
2441    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2444        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2445
2446    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2448        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2449        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2450        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2451
2452    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2453        return apply_index_offset(
2454            expression.this,
2455            expression.expressions,
2456            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2457        )
2458
2459    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2460        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2461        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2462        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2463
2464    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2465        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2466
2467    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2469        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2470            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2471                this = self.wrap(this)
2472            return f"ANY{this}"
2473        return f"ANY {this}"
2474
2475    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2476        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2477
2478    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2480        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2481
2482        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2483            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2484            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2485
2486        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2487
2488        if default:
2489            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2490
2491        statements.append("END")
2492
2493        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2494            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2495
2496        return " ".join(statements)
2497
2498    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2499        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2500        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2501        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2502
2503    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2504        order = expression.args.get("order")
2505        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2506        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2507
2508    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2509        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2510        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2511        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2512
2513    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2514        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2515
2516        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2517            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2518        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2519            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2520        else:
2521            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2522
2523    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2524        args = expression.expressions
2525        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2526            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2527
2528        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2529            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2530
2531        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2532            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2533
2534        return args
2535
2536    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2537        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2538
2539        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2540        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2541            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2542
2543        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2544
2545    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2546        return self.func(
2547            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2548        )
2549
2550    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2552        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2553
2554    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2555        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2556        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2557        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2558        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2559        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2560        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2561        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2562        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2563
2564    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2565        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2566        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2567        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2568        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2569
2570    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2571        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2572
2573    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2574        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2575        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2576        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2577
2578    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2579        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2580
2581    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2582        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2583        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2584
2585    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2586        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2587            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2588            if not callable(transform):
2589                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2590                return ""
2591
2592            return transform(self, expression)
2593
2594        if isinstance(expression, int):
2595            return str(expression)
2596
2597        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2598            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2599            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2600        else:
2601            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2602            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2603
2604        return escaped
2605
2606    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2607        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2608
2609    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2610        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2611        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2612
2613        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2614        if unique_keys is not None:
2615            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2616        else:
2617            unique_keys = ""
2618
2619        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2620        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2621        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2622        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2623
2624        return self.func(
2625            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2626            *expression.expressions,
2627            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2628        )
2629
2630    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2631        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2632
2633    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2634        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2635        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2636        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2637        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2638        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2639        return self.func(
2640            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2641        )
2642
2643    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2645        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2646        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2647        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2648        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2649        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2650        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2651        return self.func(
2652            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2653            this,
2654            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2655        )
2656
2657    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2658        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2659        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2660        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2661
2662        if nested_schema:
2663            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2664
2665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2666        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2667        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2668        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2669
2670    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2671        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2672
2673    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2676        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2677        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2678        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2679        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2680        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2681        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2682        return self.func(
2683            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2684        )
2685
2686    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2688        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2689        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2690        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2691        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2692        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2693
2694    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2696        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2697        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2698        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2699        with_ = (
2700            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2701            if expressions
2702            else ""
2703        )
2704        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2705
2706    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2707        query = expression.args.get("query")
2708        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2709        field = expression.args.get("field")
2710        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2711
2712        if query:
2713            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2714        elif unnest:
2715            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2716        elif field:
2717            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2718        else:
2719            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2720
2721        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2722
2723    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2724        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2725
2726    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2727        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2728        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2729            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2730        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2731
2732        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2733            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2734            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2735
2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2737        if this:
2738            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2739            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2740
2741        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2742
2743    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2744        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2745
2746    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2749        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2750        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2751        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2752        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2753
2754    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2755        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2756
2757    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2758        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2759        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2760
2761    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2762        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2763        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2765        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2766
2767    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2768        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2769
2770    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2771        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2772        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2773        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2774
2775    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2776        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2777        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2778
2779        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2780            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2781        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2782            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2783
2784        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2785
2786    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2788
2789    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2791        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2792        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2793
2794    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2796        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2797        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2798
2799    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2802        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2803
2804    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2805        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2806
2807    def and_sql(
2808        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2809    ) -> str:
2810        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2811
2812    def or_sql(
2813        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2814    ) -> str:
2815        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2816
2817    def xor_sql(
2818        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2819    ) -> str:
2820        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2821
2822    def connector_sql(
2823        self,
2824        expression: exp.Connector,
2825        op: str,
2826        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2827    ) -> str:
2828        if stack is not None:
2829            if expression.expressions:
2830                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2831            else:
2832                stack.append(expression.right)
2833                if expression.comments:
2834                    for comment in expression.comments:
2835                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2836                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2837            return op
2838
2839        stack = [expression]
2840        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2841        ops = set()
2842
2843        while stack:
2844            node = stack.pop()
2845            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2846                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2847            else:
2848                sql = self.sql(node)
2849                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2850                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2851                else:
2852                    sqls.append(sql)
2853
2854        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2855        return sep.join(sqls)
2856
2857    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2858        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2859
2860    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2861        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2862
2863    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2864        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2865
2866    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2867        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2868
2869    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2870        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2871
2872    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2873        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2874
2875    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2876        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2877        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2878        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2879        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2880        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2881        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2882        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2883
2884    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2885        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2886        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2887
2888    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2889        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2890
2891    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2892        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2893            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2894        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2895
2896    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2898
2899    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2902        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2903        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2904        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2905        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2906
2907    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2910        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2911        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2912        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2913        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2914        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2915        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2916        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2917
2918    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2919        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2920        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2921        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2922        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2923
2924        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2925            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2926
2927        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2928
2929    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2930        return "BEGIN"
2931
2932    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2933        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2934        if chain is not None:
2935            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2936
2937        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2938
2939    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2940        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2941        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2942        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2943
2944    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2946
2947        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2948        if dtype:
2949            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2950            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2951            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2952            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2953            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2954
2955        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2956        if default:
2957            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2958
2959        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2960        if comment:
2961            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2962
2963        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2964            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2965
2966        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2967
2968    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2969        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2970            # Remove db from tables
2971            expression = expression.transform(
2972                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2973            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2975        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2976
2977    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2978        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2979        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2980        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2981        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2982
2983    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2984        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2985
2986        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2987            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2988        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2989            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2990        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2991            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2992        else:
2993            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2994
2995        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2996        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2997        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2998        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2999        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3000
3001    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3002        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3003            return self.expressions(
3004                expression,
3005                key="actions",
3006                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3007            )
3008        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3009
3010    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3011        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3012        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3013        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3014
3015    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3016        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3017
3018    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3019        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3020
3021        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3022            case = exp.case()
3023            for arg in expression.expressions:
3024                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3025            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3026
3027        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3028
3029        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3030        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3031        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3032
3033    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3034        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3035
3036    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3037        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3038
3039    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3040        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3043        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3044
3045    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3046        return self.sql(
3047            exp.Cast(
3048                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3049                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3050            )
3051        )
3052
3053    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3054        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3055            return self.func(
3056                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3057            )
3058        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3059
3060    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3061        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3062
3063        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3064            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3065
3066        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3067            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3068                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3069
3070        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3071            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3072                return self.sql(
3073                    exp.cast(
3074                        l / r,
3075                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3076                    )
3077                )
3078
3079        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3080
3081    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3083
3084    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3086
3087    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3088        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3089
3090    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3091        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3092
3093    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3095
3096    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3097        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3098
3099    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3100        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3101
3102    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3103        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3104
3105    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3106        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3107
3108    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3109        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3110
3111    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3112        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3113
3114    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3115        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3116            return self.sql(
3117                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3118            )
3119        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3120
3121    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3123
3124    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3126
3127    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3129
3130    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3132
3133    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3135
3136    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3138
3139    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3141
3142    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3144
3145    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3146        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3147
3148    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3149        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3150
3151    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3152        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3153
3154    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3155        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3156
3157    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3158        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3159
3160    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3161        this = expression.this
3162        expr = expression.expression
3163
3164        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3165            this, expr = expr, this
3166        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3167            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3168                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3169
3170            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3171
3172        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3173
3174    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3175        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3176        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3178        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3179        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3180
3181    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3182        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3184
3185    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3186        args = []
3187
3188        for key in expression.arg_types:
3189            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3190
3191            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3192                for value in arg_value:
3193                    args.append(value)
3194            elif arg_value is not None:
3195                args.append(arg_value)
3196
3197        if self.normalize_functions:
3198            name = expression.sql_name()
3199        else:
3200            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3201
3202        return self.func(name, *args)
3203
3204    def func(
3205        self,
3206        name: str,
3207        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3208        prefix: str = "(",
3209        suffix: str = ")",
3210    ) -> str:
3211        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3212
3213    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3214        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3215        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3216            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3217        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3218
3219    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3220        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3221
3222    def format_time(
3223        self,
3224        expression: exp.Expression,
3225        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3226        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3227    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3228        return format_time(
3229            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3230            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3231            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3232        )
3233
3234    def expressions(
3235        self,
3236        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3237        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3238        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3239        flat: bool = False,
3240        indent: bool = True,
3241        skip_first: bool = False,
3242        skip_last: bool = False,
3243        sep: str = ", ",
3244        prefix: str = "",
3245        dynamic: bool = False,
3246        new_line: bool = False,
3247    ) -> str:
3248        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3249
3250        if not expressions:
3251            return ""
3252
3253        if flat:
3254            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3255
3256        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3257
3258        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3259        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3260            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3261
3262        result_sqls = []
3263        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3264            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3265            if not sql:
3266                continue
3267
3268            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3269
3270            if self.pretty:
3271                if self.leading_comma:
3272                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3273                else:
3274                    result_sqls.append(
3275                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3276                    )
3277            else:
3278                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3279
3280        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3281            if new_line:
3282                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3283                result_sqls.append("")
3284            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3285        else:
3286            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3287        return (
3288            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3289            if indent
3290            else result_sql
3291        )
3292
3293    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3294        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3295        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3296        if flat:
3297            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3298        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3299
3300    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3301        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3302        if not property_name:
3303            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3304        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3305
3306    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3307        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3308
3309    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3310        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3311
3312    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3314        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3315        expressions = (
3316            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3317        )
3318        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3319
3320    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3322        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3323        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3324
3325    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3326        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3327
3328    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3329        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3330        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3331        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3332        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3333
3334        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3335        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3336            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3337            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3338                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3339        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3340            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3341                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3342            else:
3343                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3344        else:
3345            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3346        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3347
3348    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3349        table = expression.this
3350        table_alias = ""
3351
3352        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3353        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3354            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3355            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3356
3357        this = self.sql(table)
3358        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3359        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3361
3362        return self.prepend_ctes(
3363            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3364        )
3365
3366    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3367        if expression.args.get("format"):
3368            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3369
3370        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3371
3372    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3373        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3374            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3375            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3376
3377        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3378        if not fmt:
3379            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3380            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3381
3382        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3383
3384    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3386        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3387        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3388        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3389        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3390
3391    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3393        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3394        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3395        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3396
3397    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3398        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3399
3400    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3401        return ""
3402
3403    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3405        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3406        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3407        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3408        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3409
3410    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3412        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3413
3414        if having:
3415            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3416
3417        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3418
3419    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3420        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3421        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3422        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3423        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3424        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3425        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3426        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3427        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3428        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3429        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3430        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3431        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3432        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3433
3434    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3435        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3436        if key_block_size:
3437            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3438
3439        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3440        if using:
3441            return f"USING {using}"
3442
3443        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3444        if parser:
3445            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3446
3447        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3448        if comment:
3449            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3450
3451        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3452        if visible is not None:
3453            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3454
3455        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3456        if engine_attr:
3457            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3458
3459        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3460        if secondary_engine_attr:
3461            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3462
3463        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3464        return ""
3465
3466    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3467        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3468        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3469
3470    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3471        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3472        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3474        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3475        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3476        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3477        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3478        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3479        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3480        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3481        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3482
3483    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3484        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3485            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3486
3487        case = exp.Case().when(
3488            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3489            expression.args["true"],
3490            copy=False,
3491        )
3492        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3493        if else_cond:
3494            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3495
3496        return self.sql(case)
3497
3498    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3499        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3500        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3501        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3502        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3503        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3504        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3505
3506    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3507        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3508
3509    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3510        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3511
3512    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3513        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3514        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3515        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3516        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3517        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3518        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3519
3520    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3522        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3523        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3524
3525    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3527        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3528        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3529
3530    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3531        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3532
3533    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3534        arg = expression.this
3535        if not arg.type:
3536            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3537
3538            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3539
3540        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3541            return self.sql(arg)
3542
3543        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3544        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3545
3546    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3547        this = expression.this
3548        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3549            return self.sql(this)
3550
3551        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3552
3553    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3554        this = expression.this
3555        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3556            return self.sql(this)
3557
3558        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3559
3560    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3561        this = expression.this
3562        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3563
3564        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3565            return self.sql(
3566                exp.cast(
3567                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3568                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3569                )
3570            )
3571
3572        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3573            return self.sql(this)
3574
3575        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3576
3577    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3578        return self.sql(
3579            exp.func(
3580                "DATEDIFF",
3581                expression.this,
3582                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3583                "day",
3584            )
3585        )
3586
3587    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3588        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3589            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3590
3591        unit = expression.text("unit")
3592        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3593            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3594
3595        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3596
3597    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3598        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3599
3600        return self.func(
3601            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3602        )
3603
3604    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3605        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3606            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3607            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3608            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3609            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3610
3611        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3612
3613        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3614        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3615            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3616
3617        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3618
3619    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3620        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3621        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3622
3623    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3624        expression.set(
3625            "expressions",
3626            [
3627                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3628                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3629                else e
3630                for e in expression.expressions
3631            ],
3632        )
3633
3634        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3635
3636    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3637        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3638        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3639
3640        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3641
3642    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3643        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3644        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3645
3646        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3647
3648        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3649        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3650
3651        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3652        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3653
3654        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3655        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3656
3657        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3658        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3659
3660        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3661
3662    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3663    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3664    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3665        to = expression.this
3666        value = expression.expression
3667        style = expression.args.get("style")
3668        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3669        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3670
3671        if not to or not value:
3672            return ""
3673
3674        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3675        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3676            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3677
3678        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3679        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3680
3681        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3682        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3683            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3684
3685            style_value = style.name
3686            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3687            if not converted_style:
3688                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3689
3690            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3691
3692            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3693                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3694            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3695                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3696            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3697                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3698            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3699                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3700
3701        if not transformed:
3702            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3703
3704        return self.sql(transformed)
3705
3706    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3707        this = expression.this
3708        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3709            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3710            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3711
3712        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3713            return f".{this}"
3714
3715        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3716        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3717
3718    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3719        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3720        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3721
3722    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3723        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3724            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3725
3726            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3727
3728        return expression
3729
3730    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3731        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3732            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3733            mods = sorted(
3734                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3735                key=lambda x: 0
3736                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3737                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3738            )
3739
3740            if mods:
3741                mod = mods[0]
3742                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3743                this.meta["inline"] = True
3744                mod.this.replace(this)
3745                return self.sql(expression.this)
3746
3747            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3748
3749            if agg_func:
3750                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3751
3752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3753
3754    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3755        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3756        if self.pretty:
3757            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3758        return string
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 342
 343    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 344        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 348        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 349        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 350        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 351        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 352        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 353    }
 354
 355    STAR_MAPPING = {
 356        "except": "EXCEPT",
 357        "replace": "REPLACE",
 358    }
 359
 360    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 361        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 362        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 363        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 364        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 365        "DAYS": "DAY",
 366        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 367        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 368        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 369        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 370    }
 371
 372    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 373        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 374        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 375        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 376        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 377        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 378            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 379            if e.args.get("windows")
 380            else ""
 381        ),
 382    }
 383
 384    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 385
 386    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 387
 388    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 389    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 390
 391    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 392        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 393        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 397        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 399        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 404        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 412        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 414        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 415        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 416        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 417        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 419        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 427        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 429        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 431        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 433        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 436        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 439        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 452        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 453        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 465        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468    }
 469
 470    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 471    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 472
 473    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 474    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 475        exp.Create,
 476        exp.Delete,
 477        exp.Drop,
 478        exp.From,
 479        exp.Insert,
 480        exp.Join,
 481        exp.Select,
 482        exp.Union,
 483        exp.Update,
 484        exp.Where,
 485        exp.With,
 486    )
 487
 488    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 489    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 490        exp.Binary,
 491        exp.Union,
 492    )
 493
 494    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 495    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 496        exp.Column,
 497        exp.Literal,
 498        exp.Neg,
 499        exp.Paren,
 500    )
 501
 502    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 503        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 504        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 505        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 506        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 507    }
 508
 509    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 510    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 511
 512    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 513
 514    __slots__ = (
 515        "pretty",
 516        "identify",
 517        "normalize",
 518        "pad",
 519        "_indent",
 520        "normalize_functions",
 521        "unsupported_level",
 522        "max_unsupported",
 523        "leading_comma",
 524        "max_text_width",
 525        "comments",
 526        "dialect",
 527        "unsupported_messages",
 528        "_escaped_quote_end",
 529        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 530    )
 531
 532    def __init__(
 533        self,
 534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 535        identify: str | bool = False,
 536        normalize: bool = False,
 537        pad: int = 2,
 538        indent: int = 2,
 539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 542        leading_comma: bool = False,
 543        max_text_width: int = 80,
 544        comments: bool = True,
 545        dialect: DialectType = None,
 546    ):
 547        import sqlglot
 548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 549
 550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 551        self.identify = identify
 552        self.normalize = normalize
 553        self.pad = pad
 554        self._indent = indent
 555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 559        self.comments = comments
 560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 561
 562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 563        self.normalize_functions = (
 564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 565        )
 566
 567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 570        )
 571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 573        )
 574
 575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 576        """
 577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 578
 579        Args:
 580            expression: The syntax tree.
 581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 582                it is safer to copy.
 583
 584        Returns:
 585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 586        """
 587        if copy:
 588            expression = expression.copy()
 589
 590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 591
 592        self.unsupported_messages = []
 593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 594
 595        if self.pretty:
 596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 597
 598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 599            return sql
 600
 601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 603                logger.warning(msg)
 604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 606
 607        return sql
 608
 609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 611        if (
 612            not expression.parent
 613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 615        ):
 616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 617
 618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 619
 620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 622
 623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 624
 625        return expression
 626
 627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 631
 632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 634
 635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 637
 638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 641        return comment
 642
 643    def maybe_comment(
 644        self,
 645        sql: str,
 646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 648        separated: bool = False,
 649    ) -> str:
 650        comments = (
 651            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 652            if self.comments
 653            else None
 654        )
 655
 656        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 657            return sql
 658
 659        comments_sql = " ".join(
 660            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 661        )
 662
 663        if not comments_sql:
 664            return sql
 665
 666        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 667
 668        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 669            return (
 670                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 671                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 672                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 673            )
 674
 675        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 676
 677    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 678        this_sql = self.indent(
 679            (
 680                self.sql(expression)
 681                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 682                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 683            ),
 684            level=1,
 685            pad=0,
 686        )
 687        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 688
 689    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 690        original = self.identify
 691        self.identify = False
 692        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 693        self.identify = original
 694        return result
 695
 696    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 697        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 698            return name.upper()
 699        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 700            return name.lower()
 701        return name
 702
 703    def indent(
 704        self,
 705        sql: str,
 706        level: int = 0,
 707        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 708        skip_first: bool = False,
 709        skip_last: bool = False,
 710    ) -> str:
 711        if not self.pretty:
 712            return sql
 713
 714        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 715        lines = sql.split("\n")
 716
 717        return "\n".join(
 718            (
 719                line
 720                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 721                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 722            )
 723            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 724        )
 725
 726    def sql(
 727        self,
 728        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 729        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 730        comment: bool = True,
 731    ) -> str:
 732        if not expression:
 733            return ""
 734
 735        if isinstance(expression, str):
 736            return expression
 737
 738        if key:
 739            value = expression.args.get(key)
 740            if value:
 741                return self.sql(value)
 742            return ""
 743
 744        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 745
 746        if callable(transform):
 747            sql = transform(self, expression)
 748        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 749            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 750
 751            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 752                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 753            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 754                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 755            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 756                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 757            else:
 758                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 759        else:
 760            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 761
 762        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 763
 764    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 765        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 766        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 767        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 768
 769    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 770        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 771        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 772        options = expression.args.get("options")
 773        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 774        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 775        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 776        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 778
 779    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 780        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 781            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 782        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 783        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 784
 785    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 786        return ".".join(
 787            self.sql(part)
 788            for part in (
 789                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 790                expression.args.get("db"),
 791                expression.args.get("table"),
 792                expression.args.get("this"),
 793            )
 794            if part
 795        )
 796
 797    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 798        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 799
 800        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 801            join_mark = ""
 802            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 803
 804        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 805
 806    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 809        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 810        return f"{position}{this}"
 811
 812    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 813        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 815        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 816        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 817        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 818        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 820        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 821
 822        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 823            kind = ""
 824
 825        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 826
 827    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 830        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 831
 832    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 835            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 836        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 837            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 838        else:
 839            persisted = ""
 840        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 841
 842    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 843        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 844
 845    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 846        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 847            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 848        else:
 849            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850
 851        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 852
 853    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 854        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 855    ) -> str:
 856        this = ""
 857        if expression.this is not None:
 858            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 859            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 860
 861        start = expression.args.get("start")
 862        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 863        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 864        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 865        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 866        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 867        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 868        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 869        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 870        cycle_sql = ""
 871
 872        if cycle is not None:
 873            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 874            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 875
 876        sequence_opts = ""
 877        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 878            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 879            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 880
 881        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 882        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 883
 884        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 885
 886    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 887        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 888    ) -> str:
 889        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 890        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 891        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 892
 893    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 894        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 895    ) -> str:
 896        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 897
 898    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 899        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 900
 901    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 902        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 903
 904    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 905        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 906        if desc is not None:
 907            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 908        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 909
 910    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 912        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 913        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 914        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 915        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 916        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 917        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 918
 919    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 920        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 921
 922    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 924        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 925        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 926
 927        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 928
 929        properties_sql = ""
 930        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 931            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 932        ):
 933            properties_sql = self.sql(
 934                exp.Properties(
 935                    expressions=[
 936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 938                    ]
 939                )
 940            )
 941
 942        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 943        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 944
 945        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 946        if expression_sql:
 947            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 948
 949            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 950                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 951                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 952                        exp.Properties(
 953                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 954                        ),
 955                        wrapped=False,
 956                    )
 957                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 958                else:
 959                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 960
 961        postindex_props_sql = ""
 962        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 963            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 964                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 965                wrapped=False,
 966                prefix=" ",
 967            )
 968
 969        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 970        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 971        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 972
 973        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 974        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 975
 976        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 978            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 980                sep=" ",
 981                prefix=" ",
 982                wrapped=False,
 983            )
 984
 985        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 986
 987        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 988        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 989            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 990                exp.Properties(
 991                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 992                ),
 993                sep=" ",
 994                prefix=" ",
 995                wrapped=False,
 996            )
 997
 998        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 999        no_schema_binding = (
1000            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1001        )
1002
1003        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1004        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1005
1006        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1008
1009    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1010        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1011        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1012        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1013        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1014        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1015        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1016        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1017        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1018        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1019        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1020
1021        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1022        if cache is None:
1023            cache_str = ""
1024        elif cache is True:
1025            cache_str = " CACHE"
1026        else:
1027            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1028
1029        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1030        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1031
1032        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1033
1034    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1036        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1037        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1038        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1039
1040    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1041        style = expression.args.get("style")
1042        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1043        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1044
1045    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1046        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1047        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1048
1049    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1050        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1051        if with_:
1052            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1053        return sql
1054
1055    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1056        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1057        recursive = (
1058            "RECURSIVE "
1059            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1060            else ""
1061        )
1062
1063        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1064
1065    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1067
1068        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1069        if materialized is False:
1070            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1071        elif materialized:
1072            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1073
1074        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1075
1076    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1077        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1078        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1079        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1080
1081        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1082            columns = ""
1083            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1084
1085        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1086            alias = "_t"
1087
1088        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1089
1090    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1093            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1094        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1095
1096    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1098        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1099            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1100        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1101
1102    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1104        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1105            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1106        return this
1107
1108    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1110        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1111
1112        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1113            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1114            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1115
1116        if escape:
1117            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1118        else:
1119            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1120
1121        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1123
1124    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1125        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1126        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1127
1128    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1130        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1131        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1132        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1133
1134    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1135        type_value = expression.this
1136
1137        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1138            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1139        else:
1140            type_sql = (
1141                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1142                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1143                else type_value
1144            )
1145
1146        nested = ""
1147        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1148        values = ""
1149
1150        if interior:
1151            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1152                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1153                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1154                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1155                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1156                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1157            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1158                nested = f" {interior}"
1159            else:
1160                nested = f"({interior})"
1161
1162        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1163        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1166        ):
1167            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1168
1169        return type_sql
1170
1171    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1172        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1173        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1174        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1175        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1176
1177    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1180        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1181        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1182        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1183        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1184        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1185        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1186        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1187        if self.RETURNING_END:
1188            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1189        else:
1190            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1191        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1192
1193    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1195        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1196        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1197        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1199        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1200        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1201        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1202        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1203        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1204        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1205
1206    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1207        return self.set_operations(expression)
1208
1209    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1210        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1211
1212    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1213        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1214        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1215        count = expression.args.get("count")
1216        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1217        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1218            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1219        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1220        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1221
1222    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1223        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1224            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1225            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1226            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1227
1228        agg = expression.this
1229        agg_arg = agg.this
1230        cond = expression.expression.this
1231        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1232        return self.sql(agg)
1233
1234    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1235        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1236            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1237            return ""
1238
1239        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1240
1241    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1243        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1244        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1245        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1246        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1247        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1248        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1249        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1250        if include:
1251            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1252        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1253        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1254        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1255        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1256
1257        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1258
1259    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1260        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1261        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1262        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1263        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1265        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1266        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1267
1268        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1269
1270        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1271        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1272
1273    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1274        text = expression.name
1275        lower = text.lower()
1276        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1277        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1278        if (
1279            expression.quoted
1280            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1281            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1282            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1283        ):
1284            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1285        return text
1286
1287    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1288        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1289        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1290        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1291        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1292        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1293
1294    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1295        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1296        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1297
1298    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1299        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1300
1301    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1302        root_properties = []
1303        with_properties = []
1304
1305        for p in expression.expressions:
1306            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1307            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1308                with_properties.append(p)
1309            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1310                root_properties.append(p)
1311
1312        return self.root_properties(
1313            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1314        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1315
1316    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1317        if properties.expressions:
1318            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1319        return ""
1320
1321    def properties(
1322        self,
1323        properties: exp.Properties,
1324        prefix: str = "",
1325        sep: str = ", ",
1326        suffix: str = "",
1327        wrapped: bool = True,
1328    ) -> str:
1329        if properties.expressions:
1330            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1331            if expressions:
1332                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1333                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1334        return ""
1335
1336    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1337        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1338
1339    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1340        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1341        for p in properties.expressions:
1342            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1343            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1344                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1345            else:
1346                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1347
1348        return properties_locs
1349
1350    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1351        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1352            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1353        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1354
1355    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1356        property_cls = expression.__class__
1357        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1358            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1359
1360        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1361        if not property_name:
1362            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1363
1364        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1365
1366    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1367        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1368            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1369            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1370
1371            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1372            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1373                like = f"({like})"
1374
1375            return like
1376
1377        if expression.expressions:
1378            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1379
1380        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1381        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1382
1383    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1384        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1385        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1386        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1387
1388    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1389        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1390        local = expression.args.get("local")
1391        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1392        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1393        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1394        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1395        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1396
1397    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1398        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1399        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1400        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1401
1402    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
1404            property = "DEFAULT"
1405        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1406            property = "ON"
1407        else:
1408            property = "OFF"
1409        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1410
1411    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1412        if expression.args.get("no"):
1413            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1414        if expression.args.get("default"):
1415            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1416
1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1418        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1419
1420    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1421        default = expression.args.get("default")
1422        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1423        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1424        if default or minimum or maximum:
1425            if default:
1426                prop = "DEFAULT"
1427            elif minimum:
1428                prop = "MINIMUM"
1429            else:
1430                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1431            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1432        units = expression.args.get("units")
1433        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1434        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1435
1436    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1437        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1438        always = expression.args.get("always")
1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
1440        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1441        never = expression.args.get("never")
1442
1443        if autotemp is not None:
1444            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1445        elif always:
1446            prop = "ALWAYS"
1447        elif default:
1448            prop = "DEFAULT"
1449        elif manual:
1450            prop = "MANUAL"
1451        elif never:
1452            prop = "NEVER"
1453        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1454
1455    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1456        no = expression.args.get("no")
1457        no = " NO" if no else ""
1458        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1459        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1460        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1461        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1462        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1463
1464    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1465        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1466            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1467        if expression.this:
1468            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1470            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1471
1472        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1473        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1474        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1475
1476    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1478
1479        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1480        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1481            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1482        else:
1483            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1484
1485        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1486
1487    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1488        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1489        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1490        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1491        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1492        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1493        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1494        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1495
1496    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1497        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1498        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1499        statistics_sql = ""
1500        if statistics is not None:
1501            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1502        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1503
1504    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1505        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1506
1507        if expression.this:
1508            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1510
1511            if expression.expression:
1512                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1513                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1514
1515            sql = f"{sql})"
1516
1517        return f"{sql})"
1518
1519    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1520        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1521        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1522
1523        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1524            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1525        else:
1526            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1527
1528        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1529        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1530        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1531        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1532        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1533        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1534        if is_function:
1535            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1536        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1537
1538        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1539        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1540        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1541        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1542        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1543        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1544        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1545        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1546
1547        if self.RETURNING_END:
1548            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1549        else:
1550            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1551
1552        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1553        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1554
1555    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1556        return self.set_operations(expression)
1557
1558    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1559        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1560
1561    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1563
1564    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1566        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1569        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1570
1571    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1572        return expression.name
1573
1574    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1575        return expression.name
1576
1577    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1578        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1579
1580        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1581        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1582
1583        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1584        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1585        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1586
1587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1588        if expressions:
1589            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1590            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1591
1592        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1593
1594    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1595        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1596
1597    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1598        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1599        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1600        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1601        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1602        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1603        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1604        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1605        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1606        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1607        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1608        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1609        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1610        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1611
1612    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1613        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1614
1615    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1616        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1617        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1618        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1619        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1620
1621    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1624        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1625        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1626
1627    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1628        return ".".join(
1629            self.sql(part)
1630            for part in (
1631                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1632                expression.args.get("db"),
1633                expression.args.get("this"),
1634            )
1635            if part is not None
1636        )
1637
1638    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1639        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1640        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1641        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1642        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1643        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1644        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1646        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1647        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1648        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1649        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1650        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1651        joins = self.indent(
1652            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1653        )
1654        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1655
1656        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1657        if file_format:
1658            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1659            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1660            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1661
1662        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1663        if ordinality:
1664            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1665            alias = ""
1666
1667        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1668        if when:
1669            table = f"{table} {when}"
1670
1671        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1672
1673    def tablesample_sql(
1674        self,
1675        expression: exp.TableSample,
1676        sep: str = " AS ",
1677        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1678    ) -> str:
1679        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1680            table = expression.this.copy()
1681            table.set("alias", None)
1682            this = self.sql(table)
1683            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1684        else:
1685            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686            alias = ""
1687
1688        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1689        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1690        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1691        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1692        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1693        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1694        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1695        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1696        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1697
1698        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1699        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1700            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1701
1702        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1703        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1704            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1705
1706        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1707        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1708            expr = f"({expr})"
1709
1710        return (
1711            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1712        )
1713
1714    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1716
1717        if expression.this:
1718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1719            if not expressions:
1720                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1721
1722            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1723            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1724            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1725            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1726            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1727
1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1729        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1730        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1731        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1732        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1733        if include_nulls is not None:
1734            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1735        else:
1736            nulls = ""
1737        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1738
1739    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1740        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1741        kind = expression.text("kind")
1742        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1743        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1744
1745    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1746        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1747
1748    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1752        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1753        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1754        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1755        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1756        if self.RETURNING_END:
1757            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1758        else:
1759            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1760        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1761        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1762
1763    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1764        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1765
1766        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1767        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1768            args = self.expressions(expression)
1769            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1770            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1771            values = (
1772                f"({values})"
1773                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1774                else values
1775            )
1776            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1777
1778        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1779        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1780        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1781
1782        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1783
1784        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1785            row = tup.expressions
1786
1787            if i == 0 and column_names:
1788                row = [
1789                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1790                ]
1791
1792            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1793
1794        if self.pretty:
1795            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1796            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1797            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1798            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1799            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1800
1801        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1802        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1803        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1804
1805    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1806        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1807
1808    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1809        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1810        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1811        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1812
1813    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1814        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1815
1816    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1817        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1818        if group_by_all is True:
1819            modifier = " ALL"
1820        elif group_by_all is False:
1821            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1822        else:
1823            modifier = ""
1824
1825        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1826
1827        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1828        grouping_sets = (
1829            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1830        )
1831
1832        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1833        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1834            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1835        else:
1836            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1837            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1838
1839        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1840        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1841            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1842        else:
1843            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1844            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1845
1846        groupings = csv(
1847            grouping_sets,
1848            cube_sql,
1849            rollup_sql,
1850            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1851            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1852        )
1853
1854        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1855            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1856
1857        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1858
1859    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1860        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1861        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1862
1863    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1864        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1865        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1866        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1867        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1868        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1869        return start + connect
1870
1871    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1872        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1873
1874    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1875        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1876            side = None
1877        else:
1878            side = expression.side
1879
1880        op_sql = " ".join(
1881            op
1882            for op in (
1883                expression.method,
1884                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1885                side,
1886                expression.kind,
1887                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1888            )
1889            if op
1890        )
1891        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1892        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1893        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1894        using = expression.args.get("using")
1895
1896        if not on_sql and using:
1897            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1898
1899        this = expression.this
1900        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1901
1902        if on_sql:
1903            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1904            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1905            if using:
1906                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1907            else:
1908                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1909        elif not op_sql:
1910            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1911                return f" {this_sql}"
1912
1913            return f", {this_sql}"
1914
1915        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1916        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1917
1918    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1919        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1920        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1921        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1922
1923    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1924        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1925
1926        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1927        if cross_apply is True:
1928            op = "INNER JOIN "
1929        elif cross_apply is False:
1930            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1931        else:
1932            op = ""
1933
1934        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1935
1936    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1938
1939        if expression.args.get("view"):
1940            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1941            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1942            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1943            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1944            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1945            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1946
1947        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1948        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1949        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1950
1951    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953
1954        args = [
1955            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1956            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1957            if e
1958        ]
1959
1960        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1961        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1963        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1964
1965        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1966
1967    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        value = expression.expression
1970        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1972        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1973        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1974
1975    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1977        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1980        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1981        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1982        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1983        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1984
1985    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1986        expressions = (
1987            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1988        )
1989        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1990        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1991
1992    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1993        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1994
1995    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1996        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1997            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1998            return ""
1999
2000        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2002        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2003        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2004
2005        if wait is not None:
2006            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2007                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2008            else:
2009                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2010
2011        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2012
2013    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2014        text = expression.this or ""
2015        if expression.is_string:
2016            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2017        return text
2018
2019    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2020        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2021            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2022            text = "".join(
2023                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2024            )
2025
2026        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2027            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2028        )
2029
2030    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2031        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2032        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2033        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2034        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2035        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2036        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2037        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2038        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2039        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2040        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2041        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2042
2043    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2044        return "NULL"
2045
2046    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2047        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2048
2049    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2052        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2053        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2054        interpolated_values = [
2055            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2056            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2057        ]
2058        interpolate = (
2059            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2060        )
2061        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2062
2063    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2064        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2065        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2066        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2067        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2068        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2069        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2070        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2071
2072    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2073        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2074
2075    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2076        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2077
2078    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2079        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2080
2081    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2082        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2083        asc = not desc
2084
2085        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2086        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2087        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2088        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2089        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2090
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092
2093        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2094        nulls_sort_change = ""
2095        if nulls_first and (
2096            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2097        ):
2098            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2099        elif (
2100            nulls_last
2101            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2102            and not nulls_are_last
2103        ):
2104            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2105
2106        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2107        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2108            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2109            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2110                self.unsupported(
2111                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2112                )
2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
2114            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2115                if expression.this.is_int:
2116                    self.unsupported(
2117                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2118                    )
2119                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2120                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2121                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2122                nulls_sort_change = ""
2123
2124        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2125        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2126
2127        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2128
2129    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2130        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2131        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2132
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134
2135        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2136
2137    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2138        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2139        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2140        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2141        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2142        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2143        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2144        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2145        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2146        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2147        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2148        definition_sqls = [
2149            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2150            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2151        ]
2152        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2153        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2154        body = "".join(
2155            (
2156                partition,
2157                order,
2158                measures,
2159                rows,
2160                after,
2161                pattern,
2162                define,
2163            )
2164        )
2165        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2166        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2167        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2168
2169    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2170        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2171
2172        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2173            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2174        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2175            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2176
2177        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2178        if options:
2179            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2180
2181        return csv(
2182            *sqls,
2183            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2184            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2185            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2186            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2187            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2188            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2189            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2190            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2191            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2192            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2193            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2194            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2195            options,
2196            sep="",
2197        )
2198
2199    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2200        return ""
2201
2202    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2203        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2204    ) -> t.List[str]:
2205        return [
2206            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2207            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2208        ]
2209
2210    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2211        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2212        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2213        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2214
2215    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2216        into = expression.args.get("into")
2217        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2218            into.pop()
2219
2220        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2221        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2222        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2223        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2224
2225        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2226        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2227            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2228            limit.pop()
2229        else:
2230            top = ""
2231
2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2233
2234        if kind:
2235            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2236                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2237            else:
2238                if kind == "STRUCT":
2239                    expressions = self.expressions(
2240                        sqls=[
2241                            self.sql(
2242                                exp.Struct(
2243                                    expressions=[
2244                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2245                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2246                                        else e
2247                                        for e in expression.expressions
2248                                    ]
2249                                )
2250                            )
2251                        ]
2252                    )
2253                kind = ""
2254
2255        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2256        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2257        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2258        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2259        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2260            expression,
2261            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2262            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2263            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2264        )
2265
2266        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2267
2268        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2269            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2270                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2271            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2272                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2273            else:
2274                table_kind = ""
2275            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2276
2277        return sql
2278
2279    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2282        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2283
2284    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2285        if expression.expressions:
2286            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2287        return ""
2288
2289    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2290        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2291        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2292        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2293        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2294        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2295
2296    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2299
2300    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2302        kind = expression.text("kind")
2303        if kind:
2304            kind = f"{kind}."
2305        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2306
2307    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2308        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2309
2310    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2311        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2312        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2313
2314        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2315        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2316
2317        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2319
2320    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2321        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2322        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2323
2324    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2325        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2326            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2327            order = expression.args.get("order")
2328
2329            if limit or order:
2330                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2331
2332                if limit:
2333                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2334                if order:
2335                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2336                return self.sql(select)
2337
2338        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2339        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2340
2341        while stack:
2342            node = stack.pop()
2343
2344            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2345                stack.append(node.expression)
2346                stack.append(
2347                    self.maybe_comment(
2348                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2349                        comments=node.comments,
2350                        separated=True,
2351                    )
2352                )
2353                stack.append(node.this)
2354            else:
2355                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2356
2357        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2358        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2360
2361    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2362        return self.set_operations(expression)
2363
2364    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2365        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2366        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2367        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2368        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2369
2370    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2371        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2372
2373        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2374        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2375
2376        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2377            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2378                alias.append("columns", offset)
2379
2380        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2381            columns = alias.columns
2382            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2383        else:
2384            alias = self.sql(alias)
2385
2386        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2387        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2388            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2389        else:
2390            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2391                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2392            elif offset:
2393                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2394            else:
2395                suffix = alias
2396
2397        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2398
2399    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2400        return ""
2401
2402    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2404        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2405
2406    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2409        order = expression.args.get("order")
2410        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2411        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2413        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2414
2415        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2416
2417        first = expression.args.get("first")
2418        if first is None:
2419            first = ""
2420        else:
2421            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2422
2423        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2424            return f"{this} {alias}"
2425
2426        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2427        return f"{this} ({args})"
2428
2429    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2430        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2431        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2432
2433    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2434        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2435        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2436        end = (
2437            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2438            or "CURRENT ROW"
2439        )
2440        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2441
2442    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2445        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2446
2447    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2450        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2451        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2452
2453    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2454        return apply_index_offset(
2455            expression.this,
2456            expression.expressions,
2457            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2458        )
2459
2460    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2461        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2462        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2464
2465    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2466        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2467
2468    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2471            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2472                this = self.wrap(this)
2473            return f"ANY{this}"
2474        return f"ANY {this}"
2475
2476    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2477        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2478
2479    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2482
2483        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2484            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2485            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2486
2487        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2488
2489        if default:
2490            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2491
2492        statements.append("END")
2493
2494        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2495            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2496
2497        return " ".join(statements)
2498
2499    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2503
2504    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2505        order = expression.args.get("order")
2506        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2507        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2508
2509    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2511        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2512        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2513
2514    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2515        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2516
2517        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2518            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2519        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2520            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2521        else:
2522            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2523
2524    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2525        args = expression.expressions
2526        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2527            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2528
2529        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2530            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2531
2532        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2533            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2534
2535        return args
2536
2537    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2538        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2539
2540        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2542            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2543
2544        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2545
2546    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2547        return self.func(
2548            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2549        )
2550
2551    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2553        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2554
2555    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2557        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2558        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2559        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2560        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2561        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2562        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2563        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2564
2565    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2567        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2568        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2569        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2570
2571    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2572        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2573
2574    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2575        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2576        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2577        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2578
2579    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2581
2582    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2583        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2584        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2585
2586    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2587        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2588            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2589            if not callable(transform):
2590                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2591                return ""
2592
2593            return transform(self, expression)
2594
2595        if isinstance(expression, int):
2596            return str(expression)
2597
2598        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2599            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2600            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2601        else:
2602            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2603            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2604
2605        return escaped
2606
2607    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2609
2610    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2611        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2612        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2613
2614        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2615        if unique_keys is not None:
2616            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2617        else:
2618            unique_keys = ""
2619
2620        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2621        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2622        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2623        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2624
2625        return self.func(
2626            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2627            *expression.expressions,
2628            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2629        )
2630
2631    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2632        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2633
2634    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2635        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2636        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2637        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2638        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2639        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2640        return self.func(
2641            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2642        )
2643
2644    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2646        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2649        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2650        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2651        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2652        return self.func(
2653            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2654            this,
2655            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2656        )
2657
2658    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2659        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2660        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2661        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2662
2663        if nested_schema:
2664            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2665
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2669        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2670
2671    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2672        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2673
2674    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2677        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2678        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2679        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2680        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2681        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2682        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2683        return self.func(
2684            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2685        )
2686
2687    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2690        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2691        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2692        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2693        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2694
2695    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2698        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2700        with_ = (
2701            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2702            if expressions
2703            else ""
2704        )
2705        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2706
2707    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2708        query = expression.args.get("query")
2709        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2710        field = expression.args.get("field")
2711        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2712
2713        if query:
2714            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2715        elif unnest:
2716            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2717        elif field:
2718            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2719        else:
2720            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2721
2722        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2723
2724    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2725        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2726
2727    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2728        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2729        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2730            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2731        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2732
2733        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2734            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2735            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2736
2737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2738        if this:
2739            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2740            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2741
2742        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2743
2744    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2745        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2746
2747    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2750        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2751        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2752        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2753        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2754
2755    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2756        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2757
2758    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2759        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2760        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2761
2762    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2763        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2764        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2766        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2767
2768    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2769        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2770
2771    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2775
2776    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2777        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2778        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2779
2780        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2781            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2782        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2783            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2784
2785        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2786
2787    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2789
2790    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2792        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2793        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2794
2795    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2798        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2799
2800    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2803        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2804
2805    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2806        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2807
2808    def and_sql(
2809        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2810    ) -> str:
2811        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2812
2813    def or_sql(
2814        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2815    ) -> str:
2816        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2817
2818    def xor_sql(
2819        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2820    ) -> str:
2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2822
2823    def connector_sql(
2824        self,
2825        expression: exp.Connector,
2826        op: str,
2827        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2828    ) -> str:
2829        if stack is not None:
2830            if expression.expressions:
2831                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2832            else:
2833                stack.append(expression.right)
2834                if expression.comments:
2835                    for comment in expression.comments:
2836                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2837                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2838            return op
2839
2840        stack = [expression]
2841        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2842        ops = set()
2843
2844        while stack:
2845            node = stack.pop()
2846            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2847                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2848            else:
2849                sql = self.sql(node)
2850                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2851                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2852                else:
2853                    sqls.append(sql)
2854
2855        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2856        return sep.join(sqls)
2857
2858    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2859        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2860
2861    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2862        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2863
2864    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2865        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2866
2867    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2868        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2869
2870    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2871        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2872
2873    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2874        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2875
2876    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2877        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2878        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2879        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2880        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2881        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2882        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2883        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2884
2885    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2888
2889    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2890        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2891
2892    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2893        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2894            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2895        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2896
2897    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2899
2900    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2903        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2904        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2905        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2906        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2907
2908    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2911        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2912        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2913        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2914        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2915        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2916        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2917        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2918
2919    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2920        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2921        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2922        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2923        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2924
2925        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2926            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2927
2928        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2929
2930    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2931        return "BEGIN"
2932
2933    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2934        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2935        if chain is not None:
2936            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2937
2938        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2939
2940    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2941        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2942        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2943        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2944
2945    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2947
2948        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2949        if dtype:
2950            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2951            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2952            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2953            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2955
2956        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2957        if default:
2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2959
2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2961        if comment:
2962            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2963
2964        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2965            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2966
2967        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2968
2969    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2970        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2971            # Remove db from tables
2972            expression = expression.transform(
2973                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2974            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2977
2978    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2979        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2980        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2981        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2982        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2983
2984    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2985        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2986
2987        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2988            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2989        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2991        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2992            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2993        else:
2994            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2995
2996        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2997        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2999        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3000        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3001
3002    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3003        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3004            return self.expressions(
3005                expression,
3006                key="actions",
3007                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3008            )
3009        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3010
3011    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3012        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3013        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3014        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3015
3016    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3017        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3018
3019    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3020        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3021
3022        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3023            case = exp.case()
3024            for arg in expression.expressions:
3025                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3026            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3027
3028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3029
3030        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3031        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3032        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3033
3034    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3035        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3036
3037    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3038        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3039
3040    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3041        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3043        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3044        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3045
3046    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3047        return self.sql(
3048            exp.Cast(
3049                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3050                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3051            )
3052        )
3053
3054    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3055        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3056            return self.func(
3057                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3058            )
3059        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3060
3061    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3062        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3063
3064        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3065            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3066
3067        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3068            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3069                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3070
3071        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3072            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3073                return self.sql(
3074                    exp.cast(
3075                        l / r,
3076                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3077                    )
3078                )
3079
3080        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3081
3082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3084
3085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3087
3088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3090
3091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3093
3094    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3096
3097    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3099
3100    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3102
3103    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3105
3106    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3108
3109    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3111
3112    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3114
3115    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3116        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3117            return self.sql(
3118                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3119            )
3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3121
3122    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3124
3125    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3127
3128    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3130
3131    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3133
3134    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3136
3137    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3139
3140    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3142
3143    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3145
3146    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3148
3149    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3151
3152    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3154
3155    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3157
3158    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3159        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3160
3161    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3162        this = expression.this
3163        expr = expression.expression
3164
3165        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3166            this, expr = expr, this
3167        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3168            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3169                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3170
3171            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3172
3173        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3174
3175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3181
3182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3185
3186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3187        args = []
3188
3189        for key in expression.arg_types:
3190            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3191
3192            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3193                for value in arg_value:
3194                    args.append(value)
3195            elif arg_value is not None:
3196                args.append(arg_value)
3197
3198        if self.normalize_functions:
3199            name = expression.sql_name()
3200        else:
3201            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3202
3203        return self.func(name, *args)
3204
3205    def func(
3206        self,
3207        name: str,
3208        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3209        prefix: str = "(",
3210        suffix: str = ")",
3211    ) -> str:
3212        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3213
3214    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3215        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3216        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3217            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3218        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3219
3220    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3221        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3222
3223    def format_time(
3224        self,
3225        expression: exp.Expression,
3226        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3227        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3228    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3229        return format_time(
3230            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3231            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3232            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3233        )
3234
3235    def expressions(
3236        self,
3237        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3238        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3239        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3240        flat: bool = False,
3241        indent: bool = True,
3242        skip_first: bool = False,
3243        skip_last: bool = False,
3244        sep: str = ", ",
3245        prefix: str = "",
3246        dynamic: bool = False,
3247        new_line: bool = False,
3248    ) -> str:
3249        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3250
3251        if not expressions:
3252            return ""
3253
3254        if flat:
3255            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3256
3257        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3258
3259        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3260        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3261            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3262
3263        result_sqls = []
3264        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3265            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3266            if not sql:
3267                continue
3268
3269            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3270
3271            if self.pretty:
3272                if self.leading_comma:
3273                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3274                else:
3275                    result_sqls.append(
3276                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3277                    )
3278            else:
3279                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3280
3281        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3282            if new_line:
3283                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3284                result_sqls.append("")
3285            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3286        else:
3287            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3288        return (
3289            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3290            if indent
3291            else result_sql
3292        )
3293
3294    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3295        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3296        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3297        if flat:
3298            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3299        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3300
3301    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3302        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3303        if not property_name:
3304            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3305        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3306
3307    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3308        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3309
3310    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3311        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3312
3313    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3315        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3316        expressions = (
3317            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3318        )
3319        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3320
3321    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3324        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3325
3326    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3327        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3328
3329    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3330        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3331        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3332        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3333        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3334
3335        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3336        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3337            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3338            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3339                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3340        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3341            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3342                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3343            else:
3344                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3345        else:
3346            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3347        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3348
3349    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3350        table = expression.this
3351        table_alias = ""
3352
3353        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3354        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3355            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3356            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3357
3358        this = self.sql(table)
3359        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3360        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3362
3363        return self.prepend_ctes(
3364            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3365        )
3366
3367    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3368        if expression.args.get("format"):
3369            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3370
3371        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3372
3373    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3374        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3375            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3376            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3377
3378        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3379        if not fmt:
3380            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3381            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3382
3383        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3384
3385    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3388        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3389        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3390        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3391
3392    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3394        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3395        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3396        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3397
3398    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3399        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3400
3401    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3402        return ""
3403
3404    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3406        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3407        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3408        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3409        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3410
3411    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3413        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3414
3415        if having:
3416            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3417
3418        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3419
3420    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3421        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3422        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3423        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3424        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3425        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3426        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3427        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3428        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3429        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3430        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3431        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3432        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3433        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3434
3435    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3436        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3437        if key_block_size:
3438            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3439
3440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3441        if using:
3442            return f"USING {using}"
3443
3444        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3445        if parser:
3446            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3447
3448        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3449        if comment:
3450            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3451
3452        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3453        if visible is not None:
3454            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3455
3456        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3457        if engine_attr:
3458            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3459
3460        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3461        if secondary_engine_attr:
3462            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3463
3464        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3465        return ""
3466
3467    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3468        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3469        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3470
3471    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3473        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3476        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3477        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3479        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3480        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3481        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3482        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3483
3484    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3485        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3486            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3487
3488        case = exp.Case().when(
3489            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3490            expression.args["true"],
3491            copy=False,
3492        )
3493        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3494        if else_cond:
3495            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3496
3497        return self.sql(case)
3498
3499    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3501        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3502        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3503        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3504        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3505        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3506
3507    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3509
3510    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3512
3513    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3514        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3515        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3516        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3517        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3518        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3519        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3520
3521    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3524        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3525
3526    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3528        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3529        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3530
3531    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3532        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3533
3534    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3535        arg = expression.this
3536        if not arg.type:
3537            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3538
3539            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3540
3541        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3542            return self.sql(arg)
3543
3544        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3545        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3546
3547    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3548        this = expression.this
3549        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3550            return self.sql(this)
3551
3552        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3553
3554    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3555        this = expression.this
3556        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3557            return self.sql(this)
3558
3559        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3560
3561    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3562        this = expression.this
3563        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3564
3565        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3566            return self.sql(
3567                exp.cast(
3568                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3569                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3570                )
3571            )
3572
3573        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3574            return self.sql(this)
3575
3576        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3577
3578    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3579        return self.sql(
3580            exp.func(
3581                "DATEDIFF",
3582                expression.this,
3583                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3584                "day",
3585            )
3586        )
3587
3588    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3589        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3590            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3591
3592        unit = expression.text("unit")
3593        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3594            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3595
3596        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3597
3598    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3599        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3600
3601        return self.func(
3602            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3603        )
3604
3605    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3606        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3607            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3608            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3609            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3610            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3611
3612        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3613
3614        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3615        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3616            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3617
3618        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3619
3620    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3621        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3622        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3623
3624    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3625        expression.set(
3626            "expressions",
3627            [
3628                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3629                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3630                else e
3631                for e in expression.expressions
3632            ],
3633        )
3634
3635        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3636
3637    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3638        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3640
3641        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3642
3643    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3644        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3645        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3646
3647        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3648
3649        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3650        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3651
3652        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3653        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3654
3655        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3656        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3657
3658        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3659        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3660
3661        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3662
3663    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3664    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3665    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3666        to = expression.this
3667        value = expression.expression
3668        style = expression.args.get("style")
3669        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3670        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3671
3672        if not to or not value:
3673            return ""
3674
3675        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3676        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3677            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3678
3679        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3680        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3681
3682        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3683        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3684            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3685
3686            style_value = style.name
3687            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3688            if not converted_style:
3689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3690
3691            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3692
3693            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3694                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3695            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3696                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3697            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3698                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3699            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3700                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3701
3702        if not transformed:
3703            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3704
3705        return self.sql(transformed)
3706
3707    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3708        this = expression.this
3709        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3710            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3711            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3712
3713        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3714            return f".{this}"
3715
3716        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3717        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3718
3719    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3720        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3721        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3722
3723    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3724        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3725            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3726
3727            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3728
3729        return expression
3730
3731    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3732        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3733            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3734            mods = sorted(
3735                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3736                key=lambda x: 0
3737                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3738                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3739            )
3740
3741            if mods:
3742                mod = mods[0]
3743                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3744                this.meta["inline"] = True
3745                mod.this.replace(this)
3746                return self.sql(expression.this)
3747
3748            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3749
3750            if agg_func:
3751                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3752
3753        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3754
3755    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3756        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3757        if self.pretty:
3758            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3759        return string

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
532    def __init__(
533        self,
534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
535        identify: str | bool = False,
536        normalize: bool = False,
537        pad: int = 2,
538        indent: int = 2,
539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
542        leading_comma: bool = False,
543        max_text_width: int = 80,
544        comments: bool = True,
545        dialect: DialectType = None,
546    ):
547        import sqlglot
548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
549
550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
551        self.identify = identify
552        self.normalize = normalize
553        self.pad = pad
554        self._indent = indent
555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
559        self.comments = comments
560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
561
562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
563        self.normalize_functions = (
564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
565        )
566
567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
570        )
571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
573        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
576        """
577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
578
579        Args:
580            expression: The syntax tree.
581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
582                it is safer to copy.
583
584        Returns:
585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
586        """
587        if copy:
588            expression = expression.copy()
589
590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
591
592        self.unsupported_messages = []
593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
594
595        if self.pretty:
596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
597
598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
599            return sql
600
601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
603                logger.warning(msg)
604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
606
607        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
611        if (
612            not expression.parent
613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
615        ):
616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
617
618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
619
620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
622
623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
624
625        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
641        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
643    def maybe_comment(
644        self,
645        sql: str,
646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
648        separated: bool = False,
649    ) -> str:
650        comments = (
651            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
652            if self.comments
653            else None
654        )
655
656        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
657            return sql
658
659        comments_sql = " ".join(
660            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
661        )
662
663        if not comments_sql:
664            return sql
665
666        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
667
668        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
669            return (
670                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
671                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
672                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
673            )
674
675        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
677    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
678        this_sql = self.indent(
679            (
680                self.sql(expression)
681                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
682                else self.sql(expression, "this")
683            ),
684            level=1,
685            pad=0,
686        )
687        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
689    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
690        original = self.identify
691        self.identify = False
692        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
693        self.identify = original
694        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
696    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
697        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
698            return name.upper()
699        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
700            return name.lower()
701        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
703    def indent(
704        self,
705        sql: str,
706        level: int = 0,
707        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
708        skip_first: bool = False,
709        skip_last: bool = False,
710    ) -> str:
711        if not self.pretty:
712            return sql
713
714        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
715        lines = sql.split("\n")
716
717        return "\n".join(
718            (
719                line
720                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
721                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
722            )
723            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
724        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
726    def sql(
727        self,
728        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
729        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
730        comment: bool = True,
731    ) -> str:
732        if not expression:
733            return ""
734
735        if isinstance(expression, str):
736            return expression
737
738        if key:
739            value = expression.args.get(key)
740            if value:
741                return self.sql(value)
742            return ""
743
744        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
745
746        if callable(transform):
747            sql = transform(self, expression)
748        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
749            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
750
751            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
752                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
753            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
754                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
755            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
756                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
757            else:
758                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
759        else:
760            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
761
762        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
764    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
765        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
766        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
767        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
769    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
770        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
771        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
772        options = expression.args.get("options")
773        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
774        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
775        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
776        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
779    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
780        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
781            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
782        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
783        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
785    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
786        return ".".join(
787            self.sql(part)
788            for part in (
789                expression.args.get("catalog"),
790                expression.args.get("db"),
791                expression.args.get("table"),
792                expression.args.get("this"),
793            )
794            if part
795        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
797    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
798        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
799
800        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
801            join_mark = ""
802            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
803
804        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
806    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
809        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
810        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
812    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
813        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
815        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
816        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
817        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
818        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
820        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
821
822        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
823            kind = ""
824
825        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
827    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
829        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
830        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
832    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
834        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
835            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
836        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
837            persisted = " PERSISTED"
838        else:
839            persisted = ""
840        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
842    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
843        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
845    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
846        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
847            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
848        else:
849            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
850
851        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
853    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
854        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
855    ) -> str:
856        this = ""
857        if expression.this is not None:
858            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
859            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
860
861        start = expression.args.get("start")
862        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
863        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
864        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
865        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
866        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
867        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
868        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
869        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
870        cycle_sql = ""
871
872        if cycle is not None:
873            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
874            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
875
876        sequence_opts = ""
877        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
878            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
879            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
880
881        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
882        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
883
884        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
886    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
887        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
888    ) -> str:
889        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
890        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
891        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
893    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
894        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
895    ) -> str:
896        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
898    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
899        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
901    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
902        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
904    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
905        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
906        if desc is not None:
907            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
908        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
910    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
912        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
913        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
914        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
915        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
916        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
917        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
919    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
920        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 922    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 924        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 925        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 926
 927        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 928
 929        properties_sql = ""
 930        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 931            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 932        ):
 933            properties_sql = self.sql(
 934                exp.Properties(
 935                    expressions=[
 936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 938                    ]
 939                )
 940            )
 941
 942        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 943        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 944
 945        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 946        if expression_sql:
 947            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 948
 949            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 950                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 951                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 952                        exp.Properties(
 953                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 954                        ),
 955                        wrapped=False,
 956                    )
 957                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 958                else:
 959                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 960
 961        postindex_props_sql = ""
 962        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 963            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 964                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 965                wrapped=False,
 966                prefix=" ",
 967            )
 968
 969        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 970        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 971        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 972
 973        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 974        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 975
 976        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 978            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 980                sep=" ",
 981                prefix=" ",
 982                wrapped=False,
 983            )
 984
 985        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 986
 987        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 988        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 989            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 990                exp.Properties(
 991                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 992                ),
 993                sep=" ",
 994                prefix=" ",
 995                wrapped=False,
 996            )
 997
 998        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 999        no_schema_binding = (
1000            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1001        )
1002
1003        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1004        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1005
1006        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1009    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1010        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1011        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1012        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1013        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1014        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1015        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1016        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1017        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1018        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1019        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1020
1021        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1022        if cache is None:
1023            cache_str = ""
1024        elif cache is True:
1025            cache_str = " CACHE"
1026        else:
1027            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1028
1029        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1030        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1031
1032        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1034    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1036        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1037        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1038        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1040    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1041        style = expression.args.get("style")
1042        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1043        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1045    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1046        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1047        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1049    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1050        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1051        if with_:
1052            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1053        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1055    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1056        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1057        recursive = (
1058            "RECURSIVE "
1059            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1060            else ""
1061        )
1062
1063        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1065    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1067
1068        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1069        if materialized is False:
1070            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1071        elif materialized:
1072            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1073
1074        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1076    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1077        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1078        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1079        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1080
1081        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1082            columns = ""
1083            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1084
1085        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1086            alias = "_t"
1087
1088        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1090    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1093            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1094        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1096    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1098        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1099            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1100        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1102    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1104        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1105            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1106        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1108    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1110        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1111
1112        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1113            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1114            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1115
1116        if escape:
1117            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1118        else:
1119            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1120
1121        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1124    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1125        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1126        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1128    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1130        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1131        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1132        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1134    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1135        type_value = expression.this
1136
1137        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1138            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1139        else:
1140            type_sql = (
1141                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1142                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1143                else type_value
1144            )
1145
1146        nested = ""
1147        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1148        values = ""
1149
1150        if interior:
1151            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1152                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1153                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1154                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1155                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1156                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1157            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1158                nested = f" {interior}"
1159            else:
1160                nested = f"({interior})"
1161
1162        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1163        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1166        ):
1167            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1168
1169        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1171    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1172        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1173        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1174        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1175        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1177    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1180        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1181        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1182        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1183        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1184        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1185        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1186        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1187        if self.RETURNING_END:
1188            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1189        else:
1190            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1191        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1193    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1195        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1196        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1197        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1199        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1200        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1201        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1202        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1203        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1204        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1206    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1207        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1209    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1210        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1212    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1213        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1214        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1215        count = expression.args.get("count")
1216        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1217        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1218            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1219        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1220        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1222    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1223        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1224            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1225            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1226            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1227
1228        agg = expression.this
1229        agg_arg = agg.this
1230        cond = expression.expression.this
1231        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1232        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1234    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1235        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1236            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1237            return ""
1238
1239        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1241    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1243        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1244        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1245        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1246        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1247        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1248        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1249        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1250        if include:
1251            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1252        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1253        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1254        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1255        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1256
1257        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1259    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1260        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1261        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1262        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1263        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1265        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1266        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1267
1268        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1269
1270        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1271        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1273    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1274        text = expression.name
1275        lower = text.lower()
1276        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1277        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1278        if (
1279            expression.quoted
1280            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1281            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1282            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1283        ):
1284            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1285        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1287    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1288        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1289        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1290        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1291        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1292        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1294    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1295        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1296        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1298    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1299        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1301    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1302        root_properties = []
1303        with_properties = []
1304
1305        for p in expression.expressions:
1306            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1307            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1308                with_properties.append(p)
1309            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1310                root_properties.append(p)
1311
1312        return self.root_properties(
1313            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1314        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1316    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1317        if properties.expressions:
1318            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1319        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1321    def properties(
1322        self,
1323        properties: exp.Properties,
1324        prefix: str = "",
1325        sep: str = ", ",
1326        suffix: str = "",
1327        wrapped: bool = True,
1328    ) -> str:
1329        if properties.expressions:
1330            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1331            if expressions:
1332                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1333                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1334        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1336    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1337        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1339    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1340        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1341        for p in properties.expressions:
1342            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1343            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1344                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1345            else:
1346                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1347
1348        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1350    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1351        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1352            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1353        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1355    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1356        property_cls = expression.__class__
1357        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1358            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1359
1360        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1361        if not property_name:
1362            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1363
1364        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1366    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1367        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1368            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1369            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1370
1371            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1372            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1373                like = f"({like})"
1374
1375            return like
1376
1377        if expression.expressions:
1378            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1379
1380        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1381        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1383    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1384        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1385        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1386        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1388    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1389        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1390        local = expression.args.get("local")
1391        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1392        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1393        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1394        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1395        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1397    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1398        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1399        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1400        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1402    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
1404            property = "DEFAULT"
1405        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1406            property = "ON"
1407        else:
1408            property = "OFF"
1409        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1411    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1412        if expression.args.get("no"):
1413            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1414        if expression.args.get("default"):
1415            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1416
1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1418        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1420    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1421        default = expression.args.get("default")
1422        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1423        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1424        if default or minimum or maximum:
1425            if default:
1426                prop = "DEFAULT"
1427            elif minimum:
1428                prop = "MINIMUM"
1429            else:
1430                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1431            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1432        units = expression.args.get("units")
1433        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1434        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1436    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1437        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1438        always = expression.args.get("always")
1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
1440        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1441        never = expression.args.get("never")
1442
1443        if autotemp is not None:
1444            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1445        elif always:
1446            prop = "ALWAYS"
1447        elif default:
1448            prop = "DEFAULT"
1449        elif manual:
1450            prop = "MANUAL"
1451        elif never:
1452            prop = "NEVER"
1453        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1455    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1456        no = expression.args.get("no")
1457        no = " NO" if no else ""
1458        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1459        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1460        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1461        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1462        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1464    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1465        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1466            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1467        if expression.this:
1468            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1470            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1471
1472        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1473        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1474        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1476    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1478
1479        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1480        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1481            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1482        else:
1483            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1484
1485        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1487    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1488        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1489        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1490        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1491        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1492        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1493        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1494        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1496    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1497        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1498        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1499        statistics_sql = ""
1500        if statistics is not None:
1501            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1502        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1504    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1505        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1506
1507        if expression.this:
1508            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1510
1511            if expression.expression:
1512                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1513                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1514
1515            sql = f"{sql})"
1516
1517        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1519    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1520        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1521        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1522
1523        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1524            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1525        else:
1526            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1527
1528        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1529        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1530        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1531        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1532        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1533        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1534        if is_function:
1535            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1536        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1537
1538        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1539        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1540        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1541        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1542        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1543        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1544        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1545        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1546
1547        if self.RETURNING_END:
1548            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1549        else:
1550            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1551
1552        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1553        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1555    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1556        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1558    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1559        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1561    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1564    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1566        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1569        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1571    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1572        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1574    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1575        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1577    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1578        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1579
1580        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1581        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1582
1583        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1584        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1585        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1586
1587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1588        if expressions:
1589            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1590            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1591
1592        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1594    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1595        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1597    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1598        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1599        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1600        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1601        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1602        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1603        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1604        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1605        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1606        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1607        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1608        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1609        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1610        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1612    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1613        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1615    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1616        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1617        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1618        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1619        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1621    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1624        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1625        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1627    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1628        return ".".join(
1629            self.sql(part)
1630            for part in (
1631                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1632                expression.args.get("db"),
1633                expression.args.get("this"),
1634            )
1635            if part is not None
1636        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1638    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1639        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1640        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1641        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1642        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1643        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1644        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1646        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1647        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1648        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1649        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1650        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1651        joins = self.indent(
1652            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1653        )
1654        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1655
1656        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1657        if file_format:
1658            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1659            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1660            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1661
1662        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1663        if ordinality:
1664            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1665            alias = ""
1666
1667        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1668        if when:
1669            table = f"{table} {when}"
1670
1671        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1673    def tablesample_sql(
1674        self,
1675        expression: exp.TableSample,
1676        sep: str = " AS ",
1677        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1678    ) -> str:
1679        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1680            table = expression.this.copy()
1681            table.set("alias", None)
1682            this = self.sql(table)
1683            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1684        else:
1685            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686            alias = ""
1687
1688        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1689        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1690        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1691        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1692        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1693        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1694        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1695        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1696        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1697
1698        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1699        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1700            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1701
1702        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1703        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1704            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1705
1706        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1707        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1708            expr = f"({expr})"
1709
1710        return (
1711            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1712        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1714    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1716
1717        if expression.this:
1718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1719            if not expressions:
1720                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1721
1722            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1723            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1724            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1725            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1726            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1727
1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1729        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1730        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1731        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1732        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1733        if include_nulls is not None:
1734            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1735        else:
1736            nulls = ""
1737        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1739    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1740        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1741        kind = expression.text("kind")
1742        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1743        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1745    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1746        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1748    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1752        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1753        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1754        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1755        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1756        if self.RETURNING_END:
1757            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1758        else:
1759            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1760        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1761        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1763    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1764        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1765
1766        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1767        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1768            args = self.expressions(expression)
1769            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1770            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1771            values = (
1772                f"({values})"
1773                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1774                else values
1775            )
1776            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1777
1778        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1779        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1780        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1781
1782        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1783
1784        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1785            row = tup.expressions
1786
1787            if i == 0 and column_names:
1788                row = [
1789                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1790                ]
1791
1792            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1793
1794        if self.pretty:
1795            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1796            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1797            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1798            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1799            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1800
1801        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1802        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1803        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1805    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1806        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1808    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1809        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1810        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1811        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1813    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1814        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1816    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1817        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1818        if group_by_all is True:
1819            modifier = " ALL"
1820        elif group_by_all is False:
1821            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1822        else:
1823            modifier = ""
1824
1825        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1826
1827        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1828        grouping_sets = (
1829            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1830        )
1831
1832        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1833        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1834            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1835        else:
1836            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1837            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1838
1839        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1840        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1841            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1842        else:
1843            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1844            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1845
1846        groupings = csv(
1847            grouping_sets,
1848            cube_sql,
1849            rollup_sql,
1850            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1851            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1852        )
1853
1854        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1855            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1856
1857        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1859    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1860        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1861        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1863    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1864        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1865        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1866        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1867        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1868        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1869        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1871    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1872        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1874    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1875        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1876            side = None
1877        else:
1878            side = expression.side
1879
1880        op_sql = " ".join(
1881            op
1882            for op in (
1883                expression.method,
1884                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1885                side,
1886                expression.kind,
1887                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1888            )
1889            if op
1890        )
1891        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1892        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1893        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1894        using = expression.args.get("using")
1895
1896        if not on_sql and using:
1897            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1898
1899        this = expression.this
1900        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1901
1902        if on_sql:
1903            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1904            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1905            if using:
1906                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1907            else:
1908                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1909        elif not op_sql:
1910            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1911                return f" {this_sql}"
1912
1913            return f", {this_sql}"
1914
1915        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1916        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1918    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1919        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1920        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1921        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1923    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1924        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1925
1926        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1927        if cross_apply is True:
1928            op = "INNER JOIN "
1929        elif cross_apply is False:
1930            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1931        else:
1932            op = ""
1933
1934        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1936    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1938
1939        if expression.args.get("view"):
1940            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1941            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1942            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1943            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1944            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1945            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1946
1947        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1948        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1949        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1951    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953
1954        args = [
1955            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1956            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1957            if e
1958        ]
1959
1960        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1961        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1963        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1964
1965        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1967    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        value = expression.expression
1970        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1972        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1973        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1975    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1977        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1980        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1981        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1982        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1983        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1985    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1986        expressions = (
1987            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1988        )
1989        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1990        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1992    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1993        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1995    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1996        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1997            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1998            return ""
1999
2000        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2002        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2003        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2004
2005        if wait is not None:
2006            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2007                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2008            else:
2009                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2010
2011        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2013    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2014        text = expression.this or ""
2015        if expression.is_string:
2016            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2017        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2019    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2020        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2021            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2022            text = "".join(
2023                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2024            )
2025
2026        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2027            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2028        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2030    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2031        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2032        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2033        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2034        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2035        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2036        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2037        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2038        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2039        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2040        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2041        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2043    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2044        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2046    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2047        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2049    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2052        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2053        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2054        interpolated_values = [
2055            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2056            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2057        ]
2058        interpolate = (
2059            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2060        )
2061        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2063    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2064        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2065        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2066        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2067        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2068        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2069        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2070        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2072    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2073        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2075    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2076        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2078    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2079        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2081    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2082        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2083        asc = not desc
2084
2085        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2086        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2087        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2088        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2089        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2090
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092
2093        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2094        nulls_sort_change = ""
2095        if nulls_first and (
2096            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2097        ):
2098            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2099        elif (
2100            nulls_last
2101            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2102            and not nulls_are_last
2103        ):
2104            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2105
2106        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2107        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2108            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2109            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2110                self.unsupported(
2111                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2112                )
2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
2114            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2115                if expression.this.is_int:
2116                    self.unsupported(
2117                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2118                    )
2119                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2120                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2121                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2122                nulls_sort_change = ""
2123
2124        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2125        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2126
2127        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2129    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2130        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2131        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2132
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134
2135        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2137    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2138        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2139        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2140        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2141        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2142        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2143        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2144        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2145        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2146        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2147        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2148        definition_sqls = [
2149            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2150            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2151        ]
2152        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2153        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2154        body = "".join(
2155            (
2156                partition,
2157                order,
2158                measures,
2159                rows,
2160                after,
2161                pattern,
2162                define,
2163            )
2164        )
2165        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2166        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2167        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2169    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2170        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2171
2172        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2173            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2174        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2175            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2176
2177        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2178        if options:
2179            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2180
2181        return csv(
2182            *sqls,
2183            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2184            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2185            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2186            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2187            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2188            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2189            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2190            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2191            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2192            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2193            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2194            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2195            options,
2196            sep="",
2197        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2199    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2200        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2202    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2203        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2204    ) -> t.List[str]:
2205        return [
2206            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2207            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2208        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2210    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2211        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2212        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2213        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2215    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2216        into = expression.args.get("into")
2217        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2218            into.pop()
2219
2220        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2221        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2222        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2223        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2224
2225        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2226        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2227            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2228            limit.pop()
2229        else:
2230            top = ""
2231
2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2233
2234        if kind:
2235            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2236                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2237            else:
2238                if kind == "STRUCT":
2239                    expressions = self.expressions(
2240                        sqls=[
2241                            self.sql(
2242                                exp.Struct(
2243                                    expressions=[
2244                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2245                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2246                                        else e
2247                                        for e in expression.expressions
2248                                    ]
2249                                )
2250                            )
2251                        ]
2252                    )
2253                kind = ""
2254
2255        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2256        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2257        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2258        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2259        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2260            expression,
2261            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2262            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2263            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2264        )
2265
2266        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2267
2268        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2269            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2270                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2271            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2272                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2273            else:
2274                table_kind = ""
2275            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2276
2277        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2279    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2282        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2284    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2285        if expression.expressions:
2286            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2287        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2289    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2290        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2291        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2292        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2293        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2294        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2296    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2300    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2302        kind = expression.text("kind")
2303        if kind:
2304            kind = f"{kind}."
2305        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2307    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2308        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2310    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2311        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2312        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2313
2314        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2315        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2316
2317        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2320    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2321        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2322        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2324    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2325        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2326            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2327            order = expression.args.get("order")
2328
2329            if limit or order:
2330                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2331
2332                if limit:
2333                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2334                if order:
2335                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2336                return self.sql(select)
2337
2338        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2339        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2340
2341        while stack:
2342            node = stack.pop()
2343
2344            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2345                stack.append(node.expression)
2346                stack.append(
2347                    self.maybe_comment(
2348                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2349                        comments=node.comments,
2350                        separated=True,
2351                    )
2352                )
2353                stack.append(node.this)
2354            else:
2355                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2356
2357        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2358        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2361    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2362        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2364    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2365        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2366        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2367        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2368        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2370    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2371        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2372
2373        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2374        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2375
2376        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2377            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2378                alias.append("columns", offset)
2379
2380        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2381            columns = alias.columns
2382            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2383        else:
2384            alias = self.sql(alias)
2385
2386        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2387        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2388            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2389        else:
2390            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2391                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2392            elif offset:
2393                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2394            else:
2395                suffix = alias
2396
2397        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2399    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2400        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2402    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2404        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2406    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2409        order = expression.args.get("order")
2410        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2411        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2413        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2414
2415        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2416
2417        first = expression.args.get("first")
2418        if first is None:
2419            first = ""
2420        else:
2421            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2422
2423        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2424            return f"{this} {alias}"
2425
2426        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2427        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2429    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2430        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2431        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2433    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2434        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2435        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2436        end = (
2437            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2438            or "CURRENT ROW"
2439        )
2440        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2442    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2445        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2447    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2450        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2451        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2453    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2454        return apply_index_offset(
2455            expression.this,
2456            expression.expressions,
2457            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2458        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2460    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2461        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2462        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2465    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2466        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2468    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2471            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2472                this = self.wrap(this)
2473            return f"ANY{this}"
2474        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2476    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2477        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2479    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2482
2483        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2484            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2485            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2486
2487        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2488
2489        if default:
2490            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2491
2492        statements.append("END")
2493
2494        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2495            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2496
2497        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2499    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2504    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2505        order = expression.args.get("order")
2506        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2507        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2509    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2511        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2512        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2514    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2515        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2516
2517        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2518            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2519        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2520            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2521        else:
2522            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2524    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2525        args = expression.expressions
2526        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2527            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2528
2529        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2530            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2531
2532        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2533            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2534
2535        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2537    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2538        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2539
2540        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2542            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2543
2544        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2546    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2547        return self.func(
2548            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2549        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2551    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2553        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2555    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2557        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2558        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2559        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2560        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2561        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2562        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2563        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2565    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2567        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2568        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2569        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2571    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2572        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2574    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2575        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2576        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2577        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2579    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2582    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2583        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2584        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2586    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2587        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2588            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2589            if not callable(transform):
2590                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2591                return ""
2592
2593            return transform(self, expression)
2594
2595        if isinstance(expression, int):
2596            return str(expression)
2597
2598        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2599            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2600            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2601        else:
2602            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2603            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2604
2605        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2607    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2610    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2611        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2612        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2613
2614        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2615        if unique_keys is not None:
2616            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2617        else:
2618            unique_keys = ""
2619
2620        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2621        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2622        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2623        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2624
2625        return self.func(
2626            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2627            *expression.expressions,
2628            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2629        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2631    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2632        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2634    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2635        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2636        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2637        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2638        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2639        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2640        return self.func(
2641            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2642        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2644    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2646        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2649        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2650        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2651        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2652        return self.func(
2653            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2654            this,
2655            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2656        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2658    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2659        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2660        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2661        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2662
2663        if nested_schema:
2664            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2665
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2669        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2671    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2672        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2674    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2677        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2678        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2679        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2680        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2681        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2682        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2683        return self.func(
2684            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2685        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2687    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2690        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2691        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2692        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2693        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2695    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2698        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2700        with_ = (
2701            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2702            if expressions
2703            else ""
2704        )
2705        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2707    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2708        query = expression.args.get("query")
2709        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2710        field = expression.args.get("field")
2711        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2712
2713        if query:
2714            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2715        elif unnest:
2716            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2717        elif field:
2718            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2719        else:
2720            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2721
2722        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2724    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2725        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2727    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2728        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2729        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2730            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2731        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2732
2733        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2734            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2735            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2736
2737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2738        if this:
2739            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2740            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2741
2742        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2744    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2745        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2747    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2750        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2751        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2752        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2753        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2755    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2756        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2758    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2759        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2760        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2762    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2763        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2764        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2766        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2768    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2769        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2771    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2776    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2777        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2778        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2779
2780        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2781            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2782        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2783            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2784
2785        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2787    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2790    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2792        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2793        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2795    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2798        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2800    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2803        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2805    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2806        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2808    def and_sql(
2809        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2810    ) -> str:
2811        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2813    def or_sql(
2814        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2815    ) -> str:
2816        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2818    def xor_sql(
2819        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2820    ) -> str:
2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2823    def connector_sql(
2824        self,
2825        expression: exp.Connector,
2826        op: str,
2827        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2828    ) -> str:
2829        if stack is not None:
2830            if expression.expressions:
2831                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2832            else:
2833                stack.append(expression.right)
2834                if expression.comments:
2835                    for comment in expression.comments:
2836                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2837                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2838            return op
2839
2840        stack = [expression]
2841        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2842        ops = set()
2843
2844        while stack:
2845            node = stack.pop()
2846            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2847                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2848            else:
2849                sql = self.sql(node)
2850                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2851                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2852                else:
2853                    sqls.append(sql)
2854
2855        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2856        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2858    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2859        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2861    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2862        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2864    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2865        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2867    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2868        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2870    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2871        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2873    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2874        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2876    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2877        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2878        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2879        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2880        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2881        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2882        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2883        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2885    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2889    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2890        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2892    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2893        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2894            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2895        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2897    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2900    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2903        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2904        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2905        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2906        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2908    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2911        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2912        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2913        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2914        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2915        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2916        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2917        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2919    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2920        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2921        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2922        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2923        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2924
2925        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2926            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2927
2928        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2930    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2931        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2933    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2934        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2935        if chain is not None:
2936            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2937
2938        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2940    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2941        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2942        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2943        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2945    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2947
2948        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2949        if dtype:
2950            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2951            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2952            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2953            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2955
2956        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2957        if default:
2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2959
2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2961        if comment:
2962            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2963
2964        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2965            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2966
2967        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2969    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2970        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2971            # Remove db from tables
2972            expression = expression.transform(
2973                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2974            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2976        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2978    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2979        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2980        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2981        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2982        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2984    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2985        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2986
2987        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2988            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2989        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2991        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2992            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2993        else:
2994            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2995
2996        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2997        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2999        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3000        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3002    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3003        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3004            return self.expressions(
3005                expression,
3006                key="actions",
3007                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3008            )
3009        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3011    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3012        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3013        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3014        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3016    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3017        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3019    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3020        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3021
3022        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3023            case = exp.case()
3024            for arg in expression.expressions:
3025                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3026            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3027
3028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3029
3030        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3031        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3032        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3034    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3035        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3037    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3038        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3040    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3041        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3043        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3044        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3046    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3047        return self.sql(
3048            exp.Cast(
3049                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3050                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3051            )
3052        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3054    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3055        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3056            return self.func(
3057                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3058            )
3059        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3061    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3062        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3063
3064        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3065            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3066
3067        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3068            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3069                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3070
3071        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3072            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3073                return self.sql(
3074                    exp.cast(
3075                        l / r,
3076                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3077                    )
3078                )
3079
3080        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3094    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3097    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3100    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3103    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3106    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3109    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3112    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3115    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3116        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3117            return self.sql(
3118                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3119            )
3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3122    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3125    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3128    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3131    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3134    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3137    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3140    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3143    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3146    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3149    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3152    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3155    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3158    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3159        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3161    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3162        this = expression.this
3163        expr = expression.expression
3164
3165        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3166            this, expr = expr, this
3167        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3168            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3169                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3170
3171            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3172
3173        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3187        args = []
3188
3189        for key in expression.arg_types:
3190            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3191
3192            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3193                for value in arg_value:
3194                    args.append(value)
3195            elif arg_value is not None:
3196                args.append(arg_value)
3197
3198        if self.normalize_functions:
3199            name = expression.sql_name()
3200        else:
3201            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3202
3203        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3205    def func(
3206        self,
3207        name: str,
3208        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3209        prefix: str = "(",
3210        suffix: str = ")",
3211    ) -> str:
3212        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3214    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3215        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3216        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3217            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3218        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3220    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3221        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3223    def format_time(
3224        self,
3225        expression: exp.Expression,
3226        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3227        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3228    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3229        return format_time(
3230            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3231            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3232            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3233        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3235    def expressions(
3236        self,
3237        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3238        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3239        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3240        flat: bool = False,
3241        indent: bool = True,
3242        skip_first: bool = False,
3243        skip_last: bool = False,
3244        sep: str = ", ",
3245        prefix: str = "",
3246        dynamic: bool = False,
3247        new_line: bool = False,
3248    ) -> str:
3249        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3250
3251        if not expressions:
3252            return ""
3253
3254        if flat:
3255            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3256
3257        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3258
3259        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3260        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3261            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3262
3263        result_sqls = []
3264        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3265            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3266            if not sql:
3267                continue
3268
3269            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3270
3271            if self.pretty:
3272                if self.leading_comma:
3273                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3274                else:
3275                    result_sqls.append(
3276                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3277                    )
3278            else:
3279                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3280
3281        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3282            if new_line:
3283                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3284                result_sqls.append("")
3285            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3286        else:
3287            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3288        return (
3289            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3290            if indent
3291            else result_sql
3292        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3294    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3295        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3296        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3297        if flat:
3298            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3299        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3301    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3302        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3303        if not property_name:
3304            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3305        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3307    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3308        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3310    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3311        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3313    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3315        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3316        expressions = (
3317            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3318        )
3319        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3321    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3324        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3326    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3327        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3329    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3330        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3331        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3332        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3333        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3334
3335        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3336        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3337            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3338            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3339                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3340        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3341            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3342                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3343            else:
3344                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3345        else:
3346            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3347        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3349    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3350        table = expression.this
3351        table_alias = ""
3352
3353        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3354        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3355            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3356            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3357
3358        this = self.sql(table)
3359        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3360        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3362
3363        return self.prepend_ctes(
3364            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3365        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3367    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3368        if expression.args.get("format"):
3369            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3370
3371        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3373    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3374        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3375            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3376            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3377
3378        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3379        if not fmt:
3380            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3381            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3382
3383        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3385    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3388        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3389        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3390        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3392    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3394        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3395        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3396        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3398    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3399        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3401    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3402        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3404    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3406        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3407        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3408        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3409        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3411    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3413        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3414
3415        if having:
3416            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3417
3418        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3420    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3421        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3422        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3423        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3424        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3425        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3426        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3427        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3428        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3429        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3430        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3431        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3432        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3433        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3435    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3436        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3437        if key_block_size:
3438            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3439
3440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3441        if using:
3442            return f"USING {using}"
3443
3444        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3445        if parser:
3446            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3447
3448        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3449        if comment:
3450            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3451
3452        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3453        if visible is not None:
3454            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3455
3456        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3457        if engine_attr:
3458            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3459
3460        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3461        if secondary_engine_attr:
3462            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3463
3464        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3465        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3467    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3468        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3469        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3471    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3473        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3476        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3477        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3479        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3480        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3481        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3482        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3484    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3485        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3486            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3487
3488        case = exp.Case().when(
3489            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3490            expression.args["true"],
3491            copy=False,
3492        )
3493        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3494        if else_cond:
3495            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3496
3497        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3499    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3501        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3502        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3503        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3504        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3505        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3507    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3510    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3513    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3514        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3515        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3516        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3517        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3518        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3519        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3521    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3524        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3526    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3528        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3529        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3531    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3532        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3534    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3535        arg = expression.this
3536        if not arg.type:
3537            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3538
3539            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3540
3541        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3542            return self.sql(arg)
3543
3544        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3545        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3547    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3548        this = expression.this
3549        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3550            return self.sql(this)
3551
3552        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3554    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3555        this = expression.this
3556        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3557            return self.sql(this)
3558
3559        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3561    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3562        this = expression.this
3563        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3564
3565        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3566            return self.sql(
3567                exp.cast(
3568                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3569                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3570                )
3571            )
3572
3573        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3574            return self.sql(this)
3575
3576        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3578    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3579        return self.sql(
3580            exp.func(
3581                "DATEDIFF",
3582                expression.this,
3583                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3584                "day",
3585            )
3586        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3588    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3589        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3590            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3591
3592        unit = expression.text("unit")
3593        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3594            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3595
3596        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3598    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3599        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3600
3601        return self.func(
3602            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3603        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3605    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3606        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3607            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3608            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3609            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3610            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3611
3612        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3613
3614        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3615        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3616            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3617
3618        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3620    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3621        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3622        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3624    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3625        expression.set(
3626            "expressions",
3627            [
3628                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3629                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3630                else e
3631                for e in expression.expressions
3632            ],
3633        )
3634
3635        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3637    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3638        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3640
3641        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3643    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3644        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3645        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3646
3647        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3648
3649        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3650        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3651
3652        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3653        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3654
3655        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3656        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3657
3658        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3659        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3660
3661        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3665    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3666        to = expression.this
3667        value = expression.expression
3668        style = expression.args.get("style")
3669        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3670        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3671
3672        if not to or not value:
3673            return ""
3674
3675        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3676        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3677            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3678
3679        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3680        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3681
3682        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3683        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3684            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3685
3686            style_value = style.name
3687            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3688            if not converted_style:
3689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3690
3691            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3692
3693            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3694                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3695            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3696                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3697            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3698                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3699            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3700                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3701
3702        if not transformed:
3703            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3704
3705        return self.sql(transformed)