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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 129            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 130        ),
 131        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 133        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 134        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 135        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 136        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 139        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 140        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 173    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 346    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 373    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 374
 375    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 376    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 377
 378    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 379    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 380
 381    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 382    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 383
 384    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 385    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 386
 387    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 388    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 389
 390    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 391        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 392        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 401    }
 402
 403    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 404        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 405        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 406        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 407        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 408        "DAYS": "DAY",
 409        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 410        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 411        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 412        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 413    }
 414
 415    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 416        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 417        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 418        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 419        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 420            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 421            if e.args.get("windows")
 422            else ""
 423        ),
 424        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 425    }
 426
 427    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 428
 429    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 430
 431    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 432    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 433
 434    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 435        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 437        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 443        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 460        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 461        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 464        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 468        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 469        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 474        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 475        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 477        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 480        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 483        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 486        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 494        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 500        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 501        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 516        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519    }
 520
 521    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 522    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 523
 524    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 525    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 526        exp.Command,
 527        exp.Create,
 528        exp.Delete,
 529        exp.Drop,
 530        exp.From,
 531        exp.Insert,
 532        exp.Join,
 533        exp.Select,
 534        exp.SetOperation,
 535        exp.Update,
 536        exp.Where,
 537        exp.With,
 538    )
 539
 540    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 541    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 542        exp.Binary,
 543        exp.SetOperation,
 544    )
 545
 546    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 547    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 548        exp.Column,
 549        exp.Literal,
 550        exp.Neg,
 551        exp.Paren,
 552    )
 553
 554    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 555        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 556        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 557        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 558        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 559    }
 560
 561    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 562    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 563
 564    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 565
 566    __slots__ = (
 567        "pretty",
 568        "identify",
 569        "normalize",
 570        "pad",
 571        "_indent",
 572        "normalize_functions",
 573        "unsupported_level",
 574        "max_unsupported",
 575        "leading_comma",
 576        "max_text_width",
 577        "comments",
 578        "dialect",
 579        "unsupported_messages",
 580        "_escaped_quote_end",
 581        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 582        "_next_name",
 583    )
 584
 585    def __init__(
 586        self,
 587        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 588        identify: str | bool = False,
 589        normalize: bool = False,
 590        pad: int = 2,
 591        indent: int = 2,
 592        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 593        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 594        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 595        leading_comma: bool = False,
 596        max_text_width: int = 80,
 597        comments: bool = True,
 598        dialect: DialectType = None,
 599    ):
 600        import sqlglot
 601        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 602
 603        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 604        self.identify = identify
 605        self.normalize = normalize
 606        self.pad = pad
 607        self._indent = indent
 608        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 609        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 610        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 611        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 612        self.comments = comments
 613        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 614
 615        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 616        self.normalize_functions = (
 617            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 618        )
 619
 620        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 621        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 622            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 623        )
 624        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 625            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 626        )
 627
 628        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 629
 630    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 631        """
 632        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 633
 634        Args:
 635            expression: The syntax tree.
 636            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 637                it is safer to copy.
 638
 639        Returns:
 640            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 641        """
 642        if copy:
 643            expression = expression.copy()
 644
 645        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 646
 647        self.unsupported_messages = []
 648        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 649
 650        if self.pretty:
 651            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 652
 653        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 654            return sql
 655
 656        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 657            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 658                logger.warning(msg)
 659        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 660            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 661
 662        return sql
 663
 664    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 665        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 666        if (
 667            not expression.parent
 668            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 669            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 670        ):
 671            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 672
 673            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 674
 675        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 676            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 677
 678            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 679
 680        return expression
 681
 682    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 683        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 684            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 685        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 686
 687    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 688        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 689
 690    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 691        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 692
 693    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 694        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 695        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 696        return comment
 697
 698    def maybe_comment(
 699        self,
 700        sql: str,
 701        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 702        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 703        separated: bool = False,
 704    ) -> str:
 705        comments = (
 706            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 707            if self.comments
 708            else None
 709        )
 710
 711        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 712            return sql
 713
 714        comments_sql = " ".join(
 715            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 716        )
 717
 718        if not comments_sql:
 719            return sql
 720
 721        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 722
 723        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 724            return (
 725                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 726                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 727                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 728            )
 729
 730        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 731
 732    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 733        this_sql = (
 734            self.sql(expression)
 735            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 736            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 737        )
 738        if not this_sql:
 739            return "()"
 740
 741        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 742        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 743
 744    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 745        original = self.identify
 746        self.identify = False
 747        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 748        self.identify = original
 749        return result
 750
 751    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 752        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 753            return name.upper()
 754        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 755            return name.lower()
 756        return name
 757
 758    def indent(
 759        self,
 760        sql: str,
 761        level: int = 0,
 762        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 763        skip_first: bool = False,
 764        skip_last: bool = False,
 765    ) -> str:
 766        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 767            return sql
 768
 769        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 770        lines = sql.split("\n")
 771
 772        return "\n".join(
 773            (
 774                line
 775                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 776                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 777            )
 778            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 779        )
 780
 781    def sql(
 782        self,
 783        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 784        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 785        comment: bool = True,
 786    ) -> str:
 787        if not expression:
 788            return ""
 789
 790        if isinstance(expression, str):
 791            return expression
 792
 793        if key:
 794            value = expression.args.get(key)
 795            if value:
 796                return self.sql(value)
 797            return ""
 798
 799        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 800
 801        if callable(transform):
 802            sql = transform(self, expression)
 803        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 804            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 805
 806            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 807                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 808            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 809                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 810            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 811                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 812            else:
 813                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 814        else:
 815            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 816
 817        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 818
 819    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 820        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 822        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 823
 824    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 825        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 826        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        options = expression.args.get("options")
 828        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 829        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 830        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 831        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 833
 834    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 835        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 836            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 837        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 838        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 839
 840    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 841        return ".".join(
 842            self.sql(part)
 843            for part in (
 844                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 845                expression.args.get("db"),
 846                expression.args.get("table"),
 847                expression.args.get("this"),
 848            )
 849            if part
 850        )
 851
 852    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 853        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 854
 855        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 856            join_mark = ""
 857            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 858
 859        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 860
 861    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 864        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 865        return f"{position}{this}"
 866
 867    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 868        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 870        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 871        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 872        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 873        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 874        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 875        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 876
 877        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 878            kind = ""
 879
 880        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 881
 882    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 884        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 885        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 886
 887    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 889        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 890            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 891        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 892            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 893        else:
 894            persisted = ""
 895        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 896
 897    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 898        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 899
 900    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 901        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 902            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 903        else:
 904            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 905
 906        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 907
 908    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 909        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 910    ) -> str:
 911        this = ""
 912        if expression.this is not None:
 913            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 914            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 915
 916        start = expression.args.get("start")
 917        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 918        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 919        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 920        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 921        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 922        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 923        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 924        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 925        cycle_sql = ""
 926
 927        if cycle is not None:
 928            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 929            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 930
 931        sequence_opts = ""
 932        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 933            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 934            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 935
 936        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 937        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 938
 939        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 940
 941    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 942        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 943    ) -> str:
 944        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 945        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 946        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 947
 948    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 949        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 950    ) -> str:
 951        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 952
 953    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 954        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 955
 956    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 957        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 958
 959    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 960        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 961        if desc is not None:
 962            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 963        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 964
 965    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 968        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 969        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 970        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 971        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 972        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 973        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 974
 975    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 976        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 977
 978    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 979        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 980        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 981        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 982
 983        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 984
 985        properties_sql = ""
 986        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 987            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 988        ):
 989            properties_sql = self.sql(
 990                exp.Properties(
 991                    expressions=[
 992                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 993                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 994                    ]
 995                )
 996            )
 997
 998            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 999                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1000            elif not self.pretty:
1001                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1002                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1003
1004        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1005        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1006
1007        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1008        if expression_sql:
1009            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1010
1011            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1012                postalias_props_sql = ""
1013                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1014                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1015                        exp.Properties(
1016                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1017                        ),
1018                        wrapped=False,
1019                    )
1020                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1021                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1022
1023        postindex_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1025            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1027                wrapped=False,
1028                prefix=" ",
1029            )
1030
1031        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1032        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1033        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1034
1035        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1036        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1037        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1038
1039        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1040        if clustered is None:
1041            clustered_sql = ""
1042        elif clustered:
1043            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1044        else:
1045            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1046
1047        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1048        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1049            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1050                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1051                sep=" ",
1052                prefix=" ",
1053                wrapped=False,
1054            )
1055
1056        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1057
1058        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1059        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1060            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1061                exp.Properties(
1062                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1063                ),
1064                sep=" ",
1065                prefix=" ",
1066                wrapped=False,
1067            )
1068
1069        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1070        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1071        no_schema_binding = (
1072            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1073        )
1074
1075        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1076        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1077
1078        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1079        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1080
1081    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1082        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1083        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1084        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1085        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1086        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1087        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1088        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1089        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1090        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1091        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1092
1093        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1094        if cache is None:
1095            cache_str = ""
1096        elif cache is True:
1097            cache_str = " CACHE"
1098        else:
1099            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1100
1101        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1102        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1103
1104        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1105
1106    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1109        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1110        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1111
1112    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1113        style = expression.args.get("style")
1114        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1115        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1116
1117    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1118        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1119        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1120
1121    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1122        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1123        if with_:
1124            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1125        return sql
1126
1127    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1128        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1129        recursive = (
1130            "RECURSIVE "
1131            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1132            else ""
1133        )
1134
1135        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1136
1137    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1138        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1139
1140        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1141        if materialized is False:
1142            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1143        elif materialized:
1144            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1145
1146        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1147
1148    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1149        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1150        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1151        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1152
1153        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1154            columns = ""
1155            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1156
1157        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1158            alias = self._next_name()
1159
1160        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1161
1162    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1165            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1166        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1167
1168    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1171            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1172        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1173
1174    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1176        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1177            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1178        return this
1179
1180    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1182        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1183
1184        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1185            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1186            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1187        else:
1188            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1189            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1190
1191        if escape:
1192            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1193            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1194        else:
1195            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1196            escape_sql = ""
1197
1198        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1199            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1200
1201        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1202
1203    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1204        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1205        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1206
1207    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1209        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1210        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1211        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1212
1213    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1214        type_value = expression.this
1215
1216        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1217            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1218        else:
1219            type_sql = (
1220                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1221                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1222                else type_value
1223            )
1224
1225        nested = ""
1226        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1227        values = ""
1228
1229        if interior:
1230            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1231                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1232                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1233                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1234                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1235                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1236            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1237                nested = f" {interior}"
1238            else:
1239                nested = f"({interior})"
1240
1241        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1242        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1243            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1244            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1245        ):
1246            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1247
1248        return type_sql
1249
1250    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1251        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1252        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1253        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1254        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1255
1256    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1258        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1259        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1260        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1261        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1262        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1263        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1264        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1265        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1266        if self.RETURNING_END:
1267            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1268        else:
1269            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1270        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1271
1272    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1276        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1277        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1278        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1279        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1280        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1281        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1282        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1283        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1284        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1285        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1286
1287    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1288        return self.set_operations(expression)
1289
1290    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1291        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1292
1293    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1294        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1295        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1296        count = expression.args.get("count")
1297        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1298        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1299            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1300        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1301        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1302
1303    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1304        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1305            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1306            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1307            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1308
1309        agg = expression.this
1310        agg_arg = agg.this
1311        cond = expression.expression.this
1312        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1313        return self.sql(agg)
1314
1315    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1316        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1317            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1318            return ""
1319
1320        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1321
1322    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1323        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1324        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1325        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1326        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1327        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1328        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1329        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1330        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1331        if include:
1332            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1333        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1334        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1335        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1336        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1337        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1338        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1339
1340        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1341
1342    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1343        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1344        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1345        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1346        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1347        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1348        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1349        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1350
1351        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1352
1353        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1354        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1355
1356    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1357        text = expression.name
1358        lower = text.lower()
1359        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1360        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1361        if (
1362            expression.quoted
1363            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1364            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1365            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1366        ):
1367            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1368        return text
1369
1370    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1371        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1372        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1373            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1374
1375        return text
1376
1377    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1378        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1379        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1380            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1381        return text
1382
1383    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1384        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1385        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1386        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1387        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1388        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1389
1390    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1391        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1392        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1393
1394    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1395        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1396
1397    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1398        root_properties = []
1399        with_properties = []
1400
1401        for p in expression.expressions:
1402            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1403            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1404                with_properties.append(p)
1405            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1406                root_properties.append(p)
1407
1408        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1409        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1410
1411        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1412            with_props = " " + with_props
1413
1414        return root_props + with_props
1415
1416    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1417        if properties.expressions:
1418            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1419        return ""
1420
1421    def properties(
1422        self,
1423        properties: exp.Properties,
1424        prefix: str = "",
1425        sep: str = ", ",
1426        suffix: str = "",
1427        wrapped: bool = True,
1428    ) -> str:
1429        if properties.expressions:
1430            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1431            if expressions:
1432                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1433                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1434        return ""
1435
1436    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1437        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1438
1439    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1440        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1441        for p in properties.expressions:
1442            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1443            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1444                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1445            else:
1446                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1447
1448        return properties_locs
1449
1450    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1451        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1452            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1453        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1454
1455    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1456        property_cls = expression.__class__
1457        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1458            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1459
1460        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1461        if not property_name:
1462            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1463
1464        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1465
1466    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1467        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1468            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1469            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1470
1471            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1472            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1473                like = f"({like})"
1474
1475            return like
1476
1477        if expression.expressions:
1478            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1479
1480        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1481        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1482
1483    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1484        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1485        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1486        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1487
1488    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1489        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1490        local = expression.args.get("local")
1491        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1492        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1493        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1494        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1495        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1496
1497    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1498        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1499        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1500        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1501
1502    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1503        if expression.args.get("default"):
1504            property = "DEFAULT"
1505        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1506            property = "ON"
1507        else:
1508            property = "OFF"
1509        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1510
1511    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1512        if expression.args.get("no"):
1513            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1514        if expression.args.get("default"):
1515            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1516
1517        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1518        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1519
1520    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1521        default = expression.args.get("default")
1522        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1523        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1524        if default or minimum or maximum:
1525            if default:
1526                prop = "DEFAULT"
1527            elif minimum:
1528                prop = "MINIMUM"
1529            else:
1530                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1531            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1532        units = expression.args.get("units")
1533        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1534        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1535
1536    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1537        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1538        always = expression.args.get("always")
1539        default = expression.args.get("default")
1540        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1541        never = expression.args.get("never")
1542
1543        if autotemp is not None:
1544            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1545        elif always:
1546            prop = "ALWAYS"
1547        elif default:
1548            prop = "DEFAULT"
1549        elif manual:
1550            prop = "MANUAL"
1551        elif never:
1552            prop = "NEVER"
1553        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1554
1555    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1556        no = expression.args.get("no")
1557        no = " NO" if no else ""
1558        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1559        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1560        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1561        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1562        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1563
1564    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1565        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1566            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1567        if expression.this:
1568            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1570            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1571
1572        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1573        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1574        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1575
1576    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578
1579        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1580        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1581            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1582        else:
1583            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1584
1585        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1586
1587    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1588        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1589        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1590        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1591        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1592        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1593        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1594        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1595
1596    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1597        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1598        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1599        statistics_sql = ""
1600        if statistics is not None:
1601            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1602        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1603
1604    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1606        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1607        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1608        data_consistency = (
1609            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1610        )
1611        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1612        retention_period = (
1613            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1614        )
1615
1616        if this:
1617            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1618        else:
1619            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1620
1621        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1622
1623        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1624
1625    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1626        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1627        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1628
1629        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1630            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1631        else:
1632            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1633
1634        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1635        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1636        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1637        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1638        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1639        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1640        if is_function:
1641            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1642        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1643
1644        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1645        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1646        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1647        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1648        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1649        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1650        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1651        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1652
1653        if self.RETURNING_END:
1654            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1655        else:
1656            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1657
1658        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1659        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1660        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1661        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1662
1663        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1664        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1665
1666    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1667        return self.set_operations(expression)
1668
1669    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1670        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1671
1672    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1673        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1674
1675    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1676        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1677        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1679        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1680        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1681
1682    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1683        return expression.name
1684
1685    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1686        return expression.name
1687
1688    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1689        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1690
1691        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1692        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1693
1694        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1695        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1696        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1697
1698        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1699        if expressions:
1700            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1701            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1702
1703        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1704
1705    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1706        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1707
1708    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1709        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1710        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1711        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1712        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1713        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1714        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1715        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1716        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1717        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1718        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1719        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1720        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1721        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1722
1723    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1724        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1725
1726    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1727        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1728        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1729        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1730        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1731
1732    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1734        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1735        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1736        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1737
1738    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1739        return ".".join(
1740            self.sql(part)
1741            for part in (
1742                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1743                expression.args.get("db"),
1744                expression.args.get("this"),
1745            )
1746            if part is not None
1747        )
1748
1749    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1750        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1751        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1752        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1753        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1754        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1755        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1756        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1757        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1758        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1759        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1760        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1761        joins = self.indent(
1762            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1763        )
1764        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1765
1766        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1767        if file_format:
1768            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1769            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1770            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1771
1772        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1773        if ordinality:
1774            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1775            alias = ""
1776
1777        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1778        if when:
1779            table = f"{table} {when}"
1780
1781        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1782        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1783
1784        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1785        if rows_from:
1786            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1787
1788        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1789
1790    def tablesample_sql(
1791        self,
1792        expression: exp.TableSample,
1793        sep: str = " AS ",
1794        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1795    ) -> str:
1796        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1797            table = expression.this.copy()
1798            table.set("alias", None)
1799            this = self.sql(table)
1800            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1801        else:
1802            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803            alias = ""
1804
1805        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1806        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1807        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1808        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1809        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1810        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1811        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1812        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1813        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1814
1815        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1816        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1817            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1818
1819        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1820        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1821            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1822
1823        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1824        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1825            expr = f"({expr})"
1826
1827        return (
1828            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1829        )
1830
1831    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1833
1834        if expression.this:
1835            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1836            if not expressions:
1837                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1838
1839            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1840            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1841            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1842            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1843            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1844
1845        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1846        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1847        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1848
1849        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1850        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1851            field = f"IN ({field})"
1852
1853        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1854        if include_nulls is not None:
1855            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1856        else:
1857            nulls = ""
1858
1859        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1860        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1861        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1862
1863    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1864        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1865        kind = expression.text("kind")
1866        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1867        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1868
1869    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1870        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1871
1872    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1874        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1875        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1876        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1877        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1878        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1879        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1880        if self.RETURNING_END:
1881            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1882        else:
1883            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1884        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1885        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1886
1887    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1888        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1889
1890        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1891        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1892            args = self.expressions(expression)
1893            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1894            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1895            values = (
1896                f"({values})"
1897                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1898                else values
1899            )
1900            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1901
1902        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1903        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1904        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1905
1906        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1907
1908        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1909            row = tup.expressions
1910
1911            if i == 0 and column_names:
1912                row = [
1913                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1914                ]
1915
1916            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1917
1918        if self.pretty:
1919            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1920            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1921            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1922            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1923            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1924
1925        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1926        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1927        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1928
1929    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1930        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1931
1932    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1933        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1934        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1935        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1936
1937    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1938        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1939
1940    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1941        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1942        if group_by_all is True:
1943            modifier = " ALL"
1944        elif group_by_all is False:
1945            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1946        else:
1947            modifier = ""
1948
1949        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1950
1951        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1952        grouping_sets = (
1953            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1954        )
1955
1956        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1957        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1958            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1959        else:
1960            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1961            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1962
1963        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1964        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1965            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1966        else:
1967            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1968            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1969
1970        groupings = csv(
1971            grouping_sets,
1972            cube_sql,
1973            rollup_sql,
1974            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1975            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1976        )
1977
1978        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1979            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1980
1981        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1982
1983    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1984        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1985        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1986
1987    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1988        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1989        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1990        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1991        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1992        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1993        return start + connect
1994
1995    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1996        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1997
1998    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1999        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2000            side = None
2001        else:
2002            side = expression.side
2003
2004        op_sql = " ".join(
2005            op
2006            for op in (
2007                expression.method,
2008                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2009                side,
2010                expression.kind,
2011                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2012            )
2013            if op
2014        )
2015        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2016        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2017        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2018        using = expression.args.get("using")
2019
2020        if not on_sql and using:
2021            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2022
2023        this = expression.this
2024        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2025
2026        if on_sql:
2027            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2028            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2029            if using:
2030                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2031            else:
2032                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2033        elif not op_sql:
2034            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2035                return f" {this_sql}"
2036
2037            return f", {this_sql}"
2038
2039        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2040            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2041
2042        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2043
2044    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2045        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2046        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2047        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2048
2049    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2050        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2051
2052        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2053        if cross_apply is True:
2054            op = "INNER JOIN "
2055        elif cross_apply is False:
2056            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2057        else:
2058            op = ""
2059
2060        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2061
2062    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2063        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2064
2065        if expression.args.get("view"):
2066            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2067            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2068            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2069            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2070            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2071            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2072
2073        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2074        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2075        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2076
2077    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079
2080        args = [
2081            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2082            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2083            if e
2084        ]
2085
2086        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2087        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2088        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2089        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2090
2091        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2092
2093    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2095        value = expression.expression
2096        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2097        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2098        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2099        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2100
2101    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2102        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2103        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2105        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2106        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2107        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2108        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2109        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2110
2111    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2112        expressions = (
2113            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2114        )
2115        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2116        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2117
2118    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2119        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2120
2121    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2122        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2123            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2124            return ""
2125
2126        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2127        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2128        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2129        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2130
2131        if wait is not None:
2132            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2133                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2134            else:
2135                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2136
2137        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2138
2139    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2140        text = expression.this or ""
2141        if expression.is_string:
2142            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2143        return text
2144
2145    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2146        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2147            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2148            text = "".join(
2149                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2150            )
2151
2152        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2153            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2154        )
2155
2156    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2157        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2158        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2159        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2160        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2161        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2162        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2163        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2164        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2165        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2166        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2167        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2168
2169    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2170        return "NULL"
2171
2172    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2173        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2174
2175    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2178        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2179        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2180        interpolated_values = [
2181            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2182            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2183        ]
2184        interpolate = (
2185            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2186        )
2187        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2188
2189    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2190        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2191        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2192        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2193        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2194        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2195        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2196        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2197
2198    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2199        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2200
2201    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2202        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2203
2204    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2205        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2206
2207    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2208        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2209        asc = not desc
2210
2211        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2212        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2213        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2214        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2215        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2216
2217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2218
2219        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2220        nulls_sort_change = ""
2221        if nulls_first and (
2222            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2223        ):
2224            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2225        elif (
2226            nulls_last
2227            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2228            and not nulls_are_last
2229        ):
2230            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2231
2232        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2233        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2234            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2235            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2236                self.unsupported(
2237                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2238                )
2239                nulls_sort_change = ""
2240            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2241                if expression.this.is_int:
2242                    self.unsupported(
2243                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2244                    )
2245                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2246                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2247                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2248                nulls_sort_change = ""
2249
2250        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2251        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2252
2253        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2254
2255    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2256        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2257        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2258
2259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2260
2261        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2262
2263    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2264        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2265        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2266        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2267        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2268        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2269        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2270        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2271        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2272        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2273        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2274        definition_sqls = [
2275            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2276            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2277        ]
2278        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2279        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2280        body = "".join(
2281            (
2282                partition,
2283                order,
2284                measures,
2285                rows,
2286                after,
2287                pattern,
2288                define,
2289            )
2290        )
2291        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2292        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2293        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2294
2295    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2296        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2297
2298        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2299            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2300        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2301            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2302
2303        return csv(
2304            *sqls,
2305            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2306            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2307            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2308            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2309            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2310            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2311            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2312            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2313            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2314            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2315            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2316            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2317            self.options_modifier(expression),
2318            sep="",
2319        )
2320
2321    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2322        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2323        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2324
2325    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2326        return ""
2327
2328    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2329        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2330    ) -> t.List[str]:
2331        return [
2332            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2333            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2334        ]
2335
2336    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2337        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2338        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2339        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2340
2341    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2342        into = expression.args.get("into")
2343        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2344            into.pop()
2345
2346        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2347        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2348        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2349        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2350
2351        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2352        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2353            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2354            limit.pop()
2355        else:
2356            top = ""
2357
2358        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2359
2360        if kind:
2361            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2362                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2363            else:
2364                if kind == "STRUCT":
2365                    expressions = self.expressions(
2366                        sqls=[
2367                            self.sql(
2368                                exp.Struct(
2369                                    expressions=[
2370                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2371                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2372                                        else e
2373                                        for e in expression.expressions
2374                                    ]
2375                                )
2376                            )
2377                        ]
2378                    )
2379                kind = ""
2380
2381        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2382        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2383        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2384        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2385        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2386            expression,
2387            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2388            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2389            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2390        )
2391
2392        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2393
2394        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2395            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2396                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2397            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2398                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2399            else:
2400                table_kind = ""
2401            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2402
2403        return sql
2404
2405    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2408        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2409
2410    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2411        if expression.expressions:
2412            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2413        return ""
2414
2415    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2416        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2417        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2418        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2419        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2420        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2421        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2422        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2423
2424    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2427
2428    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        kind = expression.text("kind")
2431        if kind:
2432            kind = f"{kind}."
2433        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2434
2435    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2436        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2437
2438    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2439        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2440        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2441        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2442        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2443        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2444
2445    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2446        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2447        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2448
2449    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2450        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2451            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2452            order = expression.args.get("order")
2453
2454            if limit or order:
2455                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2456
2457                if limit:
2458                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2459                if order:
2460                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2461                return self.sql(select)
2462
2463        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2464        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2465
2466        while stack:
2467            node = stack.pop()
2468
2469            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2470                stack.append(node.expression)
2471                stack.append(
2472                    self.maybe_comment(
2473                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2474                        comments=node.comments,
2475                        separated=True,
2476                    )
2477                )
2478                stack.append(node.this)
2479            else:
2480                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2481
2482        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2483        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2484        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2485
2486    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2487        return self.set_operations(expression)
2488
2489    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2490        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2491        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2492        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2493        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2494
2495    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2496        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2497
2498        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2499        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2500
2501        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2502            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2503                alias.append("columns", offset)
2504
2505        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2506            columns = alias.columns
2507            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2508        else:
2509            alias = self.sql(alias)
2510
2511        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2512        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2513            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2514        else:
2515            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2516                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2517            elif offset:
2518                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2519            else:
2520                suffix = alias
2521
2522        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2523
2524    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2525        return ""
2526
2527    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2528        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2529        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2530
2531    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2533        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2534        order = expression.args.get("order")
2535        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2536        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2537        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2538        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2539
2540        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2541
2542        first = expression.args.get("first")
2543        if first is None:
2544            first = ""
2545        else:
2546            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2547
2548        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2549            return f"{this} {alias}"
2550
2551        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2552        return f"{this} ({args})"
2553
2554    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2555        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2556        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2557
2558    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2559        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2560        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2561        end = (
2562            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2563            or "CURRENT ROW"
2564        )
2565        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2566
2567    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2569        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2570        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2571
2572    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2575        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2576        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2577
2578    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2579        return apply_index_offset(
2580            expression.this,
2581            expression.expressions,
2582            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2583        )
2584
2585    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2586        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2587        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2588        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2589
2590    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2591        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2592
2593    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2595        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2596            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2597                this = self.wrap(this)
2598            return f"ANY{this}"
2599        return f"ANY {this}"
2600
2601    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2602        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2603
2604    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2606        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2607
2608        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2609            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2610            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2611
2612        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2613
2614        if default:
2615            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2616
2617        statements.append("END")
2618
2619        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2620            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2621
2622        return " ".join(statements)
2623
2624    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2626        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2627        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2628
2629    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2630        order = expression.args.get("order")
2631        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2632        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2633
2634    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2635        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2636        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2637        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2638
2639    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2640        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2641
2642        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2643            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2644        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2645            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2646        else:
2647            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2648
2649    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2650        args = expression.expressions
2651        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2652            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2653
2654        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2655            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2656
2657        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2658            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2659
2660        return args
2661
2662    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2663        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2664
2665        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2666        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2667            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2668
2669        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2670
2671    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2672        return self.func(
2673            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2674        )
2675
2676    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2677        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2678        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2679
2680    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2681        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2682        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2683        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2684        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2685        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2686        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2687        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2688        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2689
2690    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2691        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2692        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2693        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2694        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2695
2696    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2697        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2698
2699    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2700        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2701        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2702        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2703
2704    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2705        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2706
2707    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2708        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2709        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2710            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2711
2712        return path
2713
2714    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2715        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2716            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2717            if not callable(transform):
2718                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2719                return ""
2720
2721            return transform(self, expression)
2722
2723        if isinstance(expression, int):
2724            return str(expression)
2725
2726        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2727            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2728            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2729        else:
2730            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2731            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2732
2733        return escaped
2734
2735    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2736        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2737
2738    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2739        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2740        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2741
2742        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2743        if unique_keys is not None:
2744            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2745        else:
2746            unique_keys = ""
2747
2748        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2749        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2750        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2751        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2752
2753        return self.func(
2754            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2755            *expression.expressions,
2756            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2757        )
2758
2759    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2760        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2761
2762    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2763        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2764        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2765        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2766        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2767        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2768        return self.func(
2769            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2770        )
2771
2772    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2775        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2776        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2777        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2778        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2779        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2780        return self.func(
2781            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2782            this,
2783            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2784        )
2785
2786    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2787        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2788        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2789        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2790
2791        if nested_schema:
2792            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2793
2794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2795        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2796        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2797        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2798
2799    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2800        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2801
2802    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2804        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2805        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2806        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2807        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2808        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2809        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2810        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2811        return self.func(
2812            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2813        )
2814
2815    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2817        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2818        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2819        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2820        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2821        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2822
2823    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2825        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2826        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2827        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2828        with_ = (
2829            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2830            if expressions
2831            else ""
2832        )
2833        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2834
2835    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2836        query = expression.args.get("query")
2837        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2838        field = expression.args.get("field")
2839        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2840
2841        if query:
2842            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2843        elif unnest:
2844            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2845        elif field:
2846            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2847        else:
2848            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2849
2850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2851
2852    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2853        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2854
2855    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2856        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2857        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2858            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2859        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2860
2861        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2862            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2863            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2864
2865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2866        if this:
2867            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2868            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2869
2870        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2871
2872    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2873        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2874
2875    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2877        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2878        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2879        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2880        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2881        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2882
2883    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2884        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2885
2886    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2887        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2888        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2889
2890    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2891        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2892        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2894        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2895
2896    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2897        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2898
2899    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2900        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2901        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2902        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2903
2904    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2905        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2906        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2907
2908        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2909            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2910        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2911            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2912
2913        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2914
2915    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2916        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2917
2918    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2920        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2921        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2922
2923    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2926        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2927
2928    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2931        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2932
2933    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2934        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2935
2936    def and_sql(
2937        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2938    ) -> str:
2939        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2940
2941    def or_sql(
2942        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2943    ) -> str:
2944        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2945
2946    def xor_sql(
2947        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2948    ) -> str:
2949        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2950
2951    def connector_sql(
2952        self,
2953        expression: exp.Connector,
2954        op: str,
2955        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2956    ) -> str:
2957        if stack is not None:
2958            if expression.expressions:
2959                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2960            else:
2961                stack.append(expression.right)
2962                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2963                    for comment in expression.comments:
2964                        if comment:
2965                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2966                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2967            return op
2968
2969        stack = [expression]
2970        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2971        ops = set()
2972
2973        while stack:
2974            node = stack.pop()
2975            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2976                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2977            else:
2978                sql = self.sql(node)
2979                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2980                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2981                else:
2982                    sqls.append(sql)
2983
2984        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2985        return sep.join(sqls)
2986
2987    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2988        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2989
2990    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2991        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2992
2993    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2994        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2995
2996    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2997        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2998
2999    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3000        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3001
3002    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3003        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3004
3005    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3006        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3007        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3008        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3009        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3010        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3011        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3012        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3013
3014    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3015        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3016        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3017
3018    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3019        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3020            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3021        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3022
3023    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3024        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3025
3026    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3028        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3029        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3030        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3031        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3032        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3033
3034    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3036        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3037        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3038        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3039        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3040        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3041        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3042        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3043        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3044
3045    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3046        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3047        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3048        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3049        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3050
3051        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3052            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3053
3054        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3055
3056    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3057        return "BEGIN"
3058
3059    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3060        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3061        if chain is not None:
3062            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3063
3064        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3065
3066    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3067        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3068        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3069        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3070
3071    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3073
3074        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3075        if dtype:
3076            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3077            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3078            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3079            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3080            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3081
3082        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3083        if default:
3084            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3085
3086        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3087        if comment:
3088            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3089
3090        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3091        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3092
3093        if not drop and not allow_null:
3094            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3095
3096        if allow_null is not None:
3097            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3098            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3099
3100        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3101
3102    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3104        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3105            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3106        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3107
3108    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3109        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3111        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3112        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3113        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3114
3115    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3116        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3117            # Remove db from tables
3118            expression = expression.transform(
3119                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3120            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3122        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3123
3124    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3125        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3126        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3127        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3128        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3129
3130    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3131        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3132        return f"SET {exprs}"
3133
3134    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3135        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3136
3137        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3138            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3139        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3140            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3141        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3142            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3143        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3144            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3145        else:
3146            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3147
3148        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3149        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3150        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3151        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3152        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3153        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3154        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3155        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3156
3157    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3158        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3159            return self.expressions(
3160                expression,
3161                key="actions",
3162                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3163                skip_first=True,
3164            )
3165        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3166
3167    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3168        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3169        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3170        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3171
3172    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3173        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3174
3175    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3176        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3177
3178        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3179            case = exp.case()
3180            for arg in expression.expressions:
3181                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3182            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3183
3184        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3185
3186        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3187        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3188        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3189
3190    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3191        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3192
3193    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3194        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3195
3196    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3197        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3198        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3199        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3200        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3201
3202    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3203        return self.sql(
3204            exp.Cast(
3205                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3206                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3207            )
3208        )
3209
3210    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3211        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3212            return self.func(
3213                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3214            )
3215        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3216
3217    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3218        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3219
3220        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3221            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3222
3223        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3224            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3225                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3226
3227        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3228            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3229                return self.sql(
3230                    exp.cast(
3231                        l / r,
3232                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3233                    )
3234                )
3235
3236        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3237
3238    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3240
3241    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3243
3244    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3245        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3246
3247    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3249
3250    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3252
3253    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3255
3256    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3258
3259    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3261
3262    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3264
3265    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3267
3268    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3270
3271    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3272        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3273            return self.sql(
3274                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3275            )
3276        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3277
3278    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3280
3281    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3282        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3283
3284    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3285        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3286
3287    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3288        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3289
3290    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3291        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3292
3293    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3294        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3295
3296    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3297        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3298
3299    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3300        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3301
3302    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3303        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3304
3305    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3306        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3307
3308    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3309        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3310
3311    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3312        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3313
3314    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3315        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3316
3317    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3318        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3319            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3320            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3321
3322        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3323
3324    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3325        this = expression.this
3326        expr = expression.expression
3327
3328        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3329            this, expr = expr, this
3330        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3331            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3332                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3333
3334            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3335
3336        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3337
3338    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3339        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3340        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3342        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3343        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3344
3345    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3346        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3347        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3348
3349    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3350        args = []
3351
3352        for key in expression.arg_types:
3353            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3354
3355            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3356                for value in arg_value:
3357                    args.append(value)
3358            elif arg_value is not None:
3359                args.append(arg_value)
3360
3361        if self.normalize_functions:
3362            name = expression.sql_name()
3363        else:
3364            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3365
3366        return self.func(name, *args)
3367
3368    def func(
3369        self,
3370        name: str,
3371        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3372        prefix: str = "(",
3373        suffix: str = ")",
3374    ) -> str:
3375        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3376
3377    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3378        arg_sqls = tuple(
3379            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3380        )
3381        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3382            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3383        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3384
3385    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3386        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3387
3388    def format_time(
3389        self,
3390        expression: exp.Expression,
3391        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3392        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3393    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3394        return format_time(
3395            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3396            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3397            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3398        )
3399
3400    def expressions(
3401        self,
3402        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3403        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3404        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3405        flat: bool = False,
3406        indent: bool = True,
3407        skip_first: bool = False,
3408        skip_last: bool = False,
3409        sep: str = ", ",
3410        prefix: str = "",
3411        dynamic: bool = False,
3412        new_line: bool = False,
3413    ) -> str:
3414        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3415
3416        if not expressions:
3417            return ""
3418
3419        if flat:
3420            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3421
3422        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3423        result_sqls = []
3424
3425        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3426            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3427            if not sql:
3428                continue
3429
3430            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3431
3432            if self.pretty:
3433                if self.leading_comma:
3434                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3435                else:
3436                    result_sqls.append(
3437                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3438                    )
3439            else:
3440                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3441
3442        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3443            if new_line:
3444                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3445                result_sqls.append("")
3446            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3447        else:
3448            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3449        return (
3450            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3451            if indent
3452            else result_sql
3453        )
3454
3455    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3456        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3457        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3458        if flat:
3459            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3460        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3461
3462    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3463        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3464        if not property_name:
3465            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3466        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3467
3468    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3469        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3470
3471    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3472        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3473
3474    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3476        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3477        expressions = (
3478            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3479        )
3480        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3481
3482    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3484        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3485        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3486
3487    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3488        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3489
3490    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3491        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3492        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3493        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3494        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3495
3496        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3497        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3498            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3499            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3500            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3501            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3502        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3503            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3504                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3505            else:
3506                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3507        else:
3508            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3509        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3510
3511    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3512        table = expression.this
3513        table_alias = ""
3514
3515        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3516        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3517            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3518            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3519
3520        this = self.sql(table)
3521        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3522        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3523        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3524        sep = self.sep()
3525
3526        return self.prepend_ctes(
3527            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3528        )
3529
3530    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3531        if expression.args.get("format"):
3532            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3533
3534        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3535
3536    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3537        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3538            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3539            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3540
3541        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3542        if not fmt:
3543            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3544            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3545
3546        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3547
3548    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3550        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3551        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3552        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3553        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3554
3555    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3557        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3558        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3559        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3560
3561    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3563
3564    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3565        return ""
3566
3567    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3568        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3569        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3570        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3571        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3572        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3573
3574    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3576        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3577
3578        if having:
3579            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3580
3581        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3582
3583    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3584        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3585        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3586        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3587        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3588        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3589        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3590        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3591        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3592        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3593        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3594        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3595        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3596        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3597
3598    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3599        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3600        if key_block_size:
3601            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3602
3603        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3604        if using:
3605            return f"USING {using}"
3606
3607        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3608        if parser:
3609            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3610
3611        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3612        if comment:
3613            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3614
3615        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3616        if visible is not None:
3617            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3618
3619        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3620        if engine_attr:
3621            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3622
3623        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3624        if secondary_engine_attr:
3625            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3626
3627        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3628        return ""
3629
3630    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3631        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3632        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3633
3634    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3635        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3636        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3638        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3639        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3640        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3641        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3642        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3643        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3644        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3645        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3646
3647    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3648        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3649            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3650
3651        case = exp.Case().when(
3652            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3653            expression.args["true"],
3654            copy=False,
3655        )
3656        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3657        if else_cond:
3658            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3659
3660        return self.sql(case)
3661
3662    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3664        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3665        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3666        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3667        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3668        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3669
3670    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3671        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3672
3673    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3674        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3675
3676    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3677        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3678        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3679        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3680        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3681        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3682        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3683
3684    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3686        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3687        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3688
3689    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3691        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3692        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3693
3694    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3695        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3696
3697    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3698        arg = expression.this
3699        if not arg.type:
3700            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3701
3702            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3703
3704        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3705            return self.sql(arg)
3706
3707        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3708        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3709
3710    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3711        this = expression.this
3712        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3713            return self.sql(this)
3714
3715        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3716
3717    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3718        this = expression.this
3719        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3720            return self.sql(this)
3721
3722        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3723
3724    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3725        this = expression.this
3726        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3727
3728        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3729            return self.sql(
3730                exp.cast(
3731                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3732                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3733                )
3734            )
3735
3736        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3737            return self.sql(this)
3738
3739        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3740
3741    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3742        return self.sql(
3743            exp.func(
3744                "DATEDIFF",
3745                expression.this,
3746                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3747                "day",
3748            )
3749        )
3750
3751    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3752        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3753            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3754
3755        unit = expression.text("unit")
3756        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3757            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3758
3759        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3760
3761    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3762        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3763
3764        return self.func(
3765            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3766        )
3767
3768    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3769        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3770            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3771            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3772            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3773            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3774
3775        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3776
3777        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3778        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3779            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3780
3781        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3782
3783    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3784        expression.set(
3785            "expressions",
3786            [
3787                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3788                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3789                else e
3790                for e in expression.expressions
3791            ],
3792        )
3793
3794        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3795
3796    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3797        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3798        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3799
3800        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3801
3802    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3803        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3804        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3805
3806        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3807
3808        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3809        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3810
3811        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3812        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3813
3814        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3815        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3816
3817        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3818        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3819
3820        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3821
3822    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3823    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3824    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3825        to = expression.this
3826        value = expression.expression
3827        style = expression.args.get("style")
3828        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3829        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3830
3831        if not to or not value:
3832            return ""
3833
3834        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3835        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3836            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3837
3838        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3839        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3840
3841        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3842        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3843            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3844
3845            style_value = style.name
3846            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3847            if not converted_style:
3848                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3849
3850            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3851
3852            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3853                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3854            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3855                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3856            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3857                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3858            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3859                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3860
3861        if not transformed:
3862            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3863
3864        return self.sql(transformed)
3865
3866    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3867        this = expression.this
3868        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3869            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3870            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3871
3872        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3873            return f".{this}"
3874
3875        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3876        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3877
3878    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3879        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3880        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3881
3882    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3883        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3884            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3885
3886            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3887
3888        return expression
3889
3890    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3891        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3892            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3893            mods = sorted(
3894                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3895                key=lambda x: 0
3896                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3897                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3898            )
3899
3900            if mods:
3901                mod = mods[0]
3902                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3903                this.meta["inline"] = True
3904                mod.this.replace(this)
3905                return self.sql(expression.this)
3906
3907            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3908
3909            if agg_func:
3910                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3911
3912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3913
3914    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3915        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3916        if self.pretty:
3917            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3918        return string
3919
3920    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3921        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3922
3923        if expression.expressions:
3924            upper = option.upper()
3925
3926            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3927            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3928
3929            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3930            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3931            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3932            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3933
3934        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3935
3936        if not value:
3937            return option
3938
3939        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3940
3941        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3942
3943    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3944        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3945        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3946            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3947            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3948            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3949        else:
3950            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3951            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3952            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3953
3954        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3955        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3956
3957        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3958        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3959
3960        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3961        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3962
3963        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3964        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3965
3966        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3967
3968    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3970        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3971
3972        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3973        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3974        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3975        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3976
3977        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3978        params = self.expressions(
3979            expression,
3980            key="params",
3981            sep=sep,
3982            new_line=True,
3983            skip_last=True,
3984            skip_first=True,
3985            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3986        )
3987
3988        if params:
3989            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3990                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3991            elif not self.pretty:
3992                params = f" {params}"
3993
3994        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3995
3996    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3997        return ""
3998
3999    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4000        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4001        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4002        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4003        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4004        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4005
4006        if filter_col or retention_period:
4007            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4008
4009        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4010
4011    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4012        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4013    ) -> str:
4014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4015        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4016        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4017        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4018
4019    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4021        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4022        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4023
4024    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4025        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4026
4027    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4029        expr = expression.expression
4030
4031        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4032            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4033            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4034        else:
4035            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4036
4037        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4038
4039    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4040        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4041            return self.sql(expression.this)
4042
4043        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4044
4045    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4046        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4047        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4048
4049        if lower and upper:
4050            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4051        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4052
4053    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4054        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4055        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4056        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4057        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4058        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4059        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4060
4061        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4062
4063    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4064        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4065
4066        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4067        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4068            fill_pattern = "' '"
4069
4070        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4071
4072    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4073        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4074        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4075
4076    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4077        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4078
4079        parent = expression.parent
4080        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4081            parent = parent.parent
4082
4083        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4084            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4085
4086        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4087            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4088
4089        return self.sql(generate_series)
4090
4091    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4092        exprs = expression.expressions
4093        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4094            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4095        else:
4096            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4097
4098        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4099
4100    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4101        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4102            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4103
4104        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4105        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4106        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4107
4108        if source_tz and timestamp:
4109            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4110                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4111            )
4112
4113        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4114
4115        return self.sql(expr)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  97        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  99        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 100        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 101        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 102        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 103        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 104        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 105        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 106        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 107        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 130            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 131        ),
 132        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 377    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 378
 379    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 380    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 381
 382    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 383    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 384
 385    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 386    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 387
 388    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 389    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 390
 391    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 392        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 402    }
 403
 404    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 405        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 406        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 407        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 408        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 409        "DAYS": "DAY",
 410        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 411        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 412        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 413        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 414    }
 415
 416    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 417        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 418        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 419        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 420        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 421            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 422            if e.args.get("windows")
 423            else ""
 424        ),
 425        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 426    }
 427
 428    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 429
 430    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 431
 432    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 433    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 434
 435    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 436        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 438        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 444        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 462        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 469        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 470        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 475        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 476        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 478        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 481        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 484        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 487        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 495        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 501        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 502        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 505        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 517        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520    }
 521
 522    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 523    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 524
 525    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 526    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 527        exp.Command,
 528        exp.Create,
 529        exp.Delete,
 530        exp.Drop,
 531        exp.From,
 532        exp.Insert,
 533        exp.Join,
 534        exp.Select,
 535        exp.SetOperation,
 536        exp.Update,
 537        exp.Where,
 538        exp.With,
 539    )
 540
 541    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 542    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 543        exp.Binary,
 544        exp.SetOperation,
 545    )
 546
 547    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 548    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 549        exp.Column,
 550        exp.Literal,
 551        exp.Neg,
 552        exp.Paren,
 553    )
 554
 555    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 556        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 557        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 558        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 559        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 560    }
 561
 562    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 563    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 564
 565    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 566
 567    __slots__ = (
 568        "pretty",
 569        "identify",
 570        "normalize",
 571        "pad",
 572        "_indent",
 573        "normalize_functions",
 574        "unsupported_level",
 575        "max_unsupported",
 576        "leading_comma",
 577        "max_text_width",
 578        "comments",
 579        "dialect",
 580        "unsupported_messages",
 581        "_escaped_quote_end",
 582        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 583        "_next_name",
 584    )
 585
 586    def __init__(
 587        self,
 588        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 589        identify: str | bool = False,
 590        normalize: bool = False,
 591        pad: int = 2,
 592        indent: int = 2,
 593        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 594        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 595        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 596        leading_comma: bool = False,
 597        max_text_width: int = 80,
 598        comments: bool = True,
 599        dialect: DialectType = None,
 600    ):
 601        import sqlglot
 602        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 603
 604        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 605        self.identify = identify
 606        self.normalize = normalize
 607        self.pad = pad
 608        self._indent = indent
 609        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 610        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 611        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 612        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 613        self.comments = comments
 614        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 615
 616        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 617        self.normalize_functions = (
 618            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 619        )
 620
 621        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 622        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 623            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 624        )
 625        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 627        )
 628
 629        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 630
 631    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 632        """
 633        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 634
 635        Args:
 636            expression: The syntax tree.
 637            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 638                it is safer to copy.
 639
 640        Returns:
 641            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 642        """
 643        if copy:
 644            expression = expression.copy()
 645
 646        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 647
 648        self.unsupported_messages = []
 649        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 650
 651        if self.pretty:
 652            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 653
 654        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 655            return sql
 656
 657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 658            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 659                logger.warning(msg)
 660        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 661            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 662
 663        return sql
 664
 665    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 666        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 667        if (
 668            not expression.parent
 669            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 670            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 671        ):
 672            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 673
 674            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 675
 676        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 677            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 678
 679            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 680
 681        return expression
 682
 683    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 684        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 685            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 686        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 687
 688    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 689        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 690
 691    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 692        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 693
 694    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 695        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 696        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 697        return comment
 698
 699    def maybe_comment(
 700        self,
 701        sql: str,
 702        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 703        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 704        separated: bool = False,
 705    ) -> str:
 706        comments = (
 707            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 708            if self.comments
 709            else None
 710        )
 711
 712        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 713            return sql
 714
 715        comments_sql = " ".join(
 716            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 717        )
 718
 719        if not comments_sql:
 720            return sql
 721
 722        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 723
 724        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 725            return (
 726                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 727                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 728                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 729            )
 730
 731        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 732
 733    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 734        this_sql = (
 735            self.sql(expression)
 736            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 737            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 738        )
 739        if not this_sql:
 740            return "()"
 741
 742        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 743        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 744
 745    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 746        original = self.identify
 747        self.identify = False
 748        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 749        self.identify = original
 750        return result
 751
 752    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 753        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 754            return name.upper()
 755        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 756            return name.lower()
 757        return name
 758
 759    def indent(
 760        self,
 761        sql: str,
 762        level: int = 0,
 763        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 764        skip_first: bool = False,
 765        skip_last: bool = False,
 766    ) -> str:
 767        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 768            return sql
 769
 770        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 771        lines = sql.split("\n")
 772
 773        return "\n".join(
 774            (
 775                line
 776                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 777                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 778            )
 779            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 780        )
 781
 782    def sql(
 783        self,
 784        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 785        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 786        comment: bool = True,
 787    ) -> str:
 788        if not expression:
 789            return ""
 790
 791        if isinstance(expression, str):
 792            return expression
 793
 794        if key:
 795            value = expression.args.get(key)
 796            if value:
 797                return self.sql(value)
 798            return ""
 799
 800        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 801
 802        if callable(transform):
 803            sql = transform(self, expression)
 804        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 805            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 806
 807            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 808                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 809            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 810                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 811            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 812                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 813            else:
 814                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 815        else:
 816            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 817
 818        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 819
 820    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 821        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 822        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 823        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 824
 825    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 826        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 827        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        options = expression.args.get("options")
 829        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 830        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 831        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 832        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 833        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 834
 835    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 836        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 837            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 838        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 839        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 840
 841    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 842        return ".".join(
 843            self.sql(part)
 844            for part in (
 845                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 846                expression.args.get("db"),
 847                expression.args.get("table"),
 848                expression.args.get("this"),
 849            )
 850            if part
 851        )
 852
 853    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 854        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 855
 856        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 857            join_mark = ""
 858            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 859
 860        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 861
 862    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 865        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 866        return f"{position}{this}"
 867
 868    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 869        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 871        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 872        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 873        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 874        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 875        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 876        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 877
 878        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 879            kind = ""
 880
 881        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 882
 883    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 886        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 887
 888    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 890        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 891            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 892        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 893            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 894        else:
 895            persisted = ""
 896        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 897
 898    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 899        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 900
 901    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 902        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 903            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 904        else:
 905            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906
 907        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 908
 909    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 910        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 911    ) -> str:
 912        this = ""
 913        if expression.this is not None:
 914            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 915            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 916
 917        start = expression.args.get("start")
 918        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 919        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 920        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 921        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 922        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 923        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 924        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 925        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 926        cycle_sql = ""
 927
 928        if cycle is not None:
 929            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 930            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 931
 932        sequence_opts = ""
 933        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 934            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 935            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 936
 937        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 938        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 939
 940        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 941
 942    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 943        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 944    ) -> str:
 945        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 946        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 947        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 948
 949    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 950        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 951    ) -> str:
 952        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 953
 954    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 955        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 956
 957    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 959
 960    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 961        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 962        if desc is not None:
 963            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 964        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 965
 966    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 968        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 969        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 970        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 971        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 972        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 973        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 974        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 975
 976    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 977        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 978
 979    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 980        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 981        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 982        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 983
 984        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 985
 986        properties_sql = ""
 987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 988            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 989        ):
 990            properties_sql = self.sql(
 991                exp.Properties(
 992                    expressions=[
 993                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 994                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 995                    ]
 996                )
 997            )
 998
 999            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1000                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1001            elif not self.pretty:
1002                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1003                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1004
1005        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1006        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1007
1008        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1009        if expression_sql:
1010            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1011
1012            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1013                postalias_props_sql = ""
1014                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1015                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                        exp.Properties(
1017                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1018                        ),
1019                        wrapped=False,
1020                    )
1021                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1022                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1023
1024        postindex_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1026            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1028                wrapped=False,
1029                prefix=" ",
1030            )
1031
1032        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1033        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1034        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1035
1036        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1037        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1038        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1039
1040        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1041        if clustered is None:
1042            clustered_sql = ""
1043        elif clustered:
1044            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1045        else:
1046            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1047
1048        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1049        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1050            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1051                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1052                sep=" ",
1053                prefix=" ",
1054                wrapped=False,
1055            )
1056
1057        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1058
1059        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1060        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1061            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1062                exp.Properties(
1063                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1064                ),
1065                sep=" ",
1066                prefix=" ",
1067                wrapped=False,
1068            )
1069
1070        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1071        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1072        no_schema_binding = (
1073            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1074        )
1075
1076        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1077        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1078
1079        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1080        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1081
1082    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1083        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1084        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1085        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1086        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1087        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1088        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1089        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1090        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1091        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1092        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1093
1094        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1095        if cache is None:
1096            cache_str = ""
1097        elif cache is True:
1098            cache_str = " CACHE"
1099        else:
1100            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1101
1102        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1103        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1104
1105        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1106
1107    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1109        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1110        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1111        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1112
1113    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1114        style = expression.args.get("style")
1115        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1116        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1117
1118    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1119        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1120        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1121
1122    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1123        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1124        if with_:
1125            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1126        return sql
1127
1128    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1129        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1130        recursive = (
1131            "RECURSIVE "
1132            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1133            else ""
1134        )
1135
1136        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1137
1138    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1139        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1140
1141        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1142        if materialized is False:
1143            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1144        elif materialized:
1145            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1146
1147        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1148
1149    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1150        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1152        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1153
1154        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1155            columns = ""
1156            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1157
1158        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1159            alias = self._next_name()
1160
1161        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1162
1163    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1165        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1166            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1167        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1168
1169    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1172            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1173        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1174
1175    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1177        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1178            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1179        return this
1180
1181    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1184
1185        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1186            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1187            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1188        else:
1189            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1190            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1191
1192        if escape:
1193            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1194            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1195        else:
1196            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1197            escape_sql = ""
1198
1199        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1200            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1201
1202        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1203
1204    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1205        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1206        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1207
1208    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1211        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1212        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1213
1214    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1215        type_value = expression.this
1216
1217        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1218            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1219        else:
1220            type_sql = (
1221                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1222                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1223                else type_value
1224            )
1225
1226        nested = ""
1227        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1228        values = ""
1229
1230        if interior:
1231            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1232                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1233                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1234                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1235                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1236                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1237            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1238                nested = f" {interior}"
1239            else:
1240                nested = f"({interior})"
1241
1242        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1243        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1244            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1245            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1246        ):
1247            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1248
1249        return type_sql
1250
1251    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1252        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1253        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1254        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1255        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1256
1257    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1260        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1261        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1262        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1263        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1264        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1265        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1266        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1267        if self.RETURNING_END:
1268            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1269        else:
1270            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1271        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1272
1273    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1276        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1277        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1278        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1279        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1280        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1281        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1282        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1283        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1284        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1285        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1286        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1287
1288    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1289        return self.set_operations(expression)
1290
1291    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1292        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1293
1294    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1295        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1296        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1297        count = expression.args.get("count")
1298        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1299        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1300            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1301        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1302        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1303
1304    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1305        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1306            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1308            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1309
1310        agg = expression.this
1311        agg_arg = agg.this
1312        cond = expression.expression.this
1313        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1314        return self.sql(agg)
1315
1316    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1317        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1318            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1319            return ""
1320
1321        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1322
1323    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1324        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1325        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1326        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1327        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1328        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1329        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1330        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1331        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1332        if include:
1333            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1334        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1335        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1336        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1337        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1338        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1340
1341        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1342
1343    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1344        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1345        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1346        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1347        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1349        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1350        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1351
1352        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1353
1354        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1355        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1356
1357    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1358        text = expression.name
1359        lower = text.lower()
1360        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1361        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1362        if (
1363            expression.quoted
1364            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1365            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1366            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1367        ):
1368            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1369        return text
1370
1371    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1372        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1373        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1374            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1375
1376        return text
1377
1378    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1379        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1380        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1381            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1382        return text
1383
1384    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1385        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1386        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1387        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1388        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1389        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1390
1391    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1392        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1393        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1394
1395    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1396        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1397
1398    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1399        root_properties = []
1400        with_properties = []
1401
1402        for p in expression.expressions:
1403            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1404            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1405                with_properties.append(p)
1406            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1407                root_properties.append(p)
1408
1409        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1410        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1411
1412        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1413            with_props = " " + with_props
1414
1415        return root_props + with_props
1416
1417    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1418        if properties.expressions:
1419            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1420        return ""
1421
1422    def properties(
1423        self,
1424        properties: exp.Properties,
1425        prefix: str = "",
1426        sep: str = ", ",
1427        suffix: str = "",
1428        wrapped: bool = True,
1429    ) -> str:
1430        if properties.expressions:
1431            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1432            if expressions:
1433                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1434                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1435        return ""
1436
1437    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1438        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1439
1440    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1441        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1442        for p in properties.expressions:
1443            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1444            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1445                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1446            else:
1447                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1448
1449        return properties_locs
1450
1451    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1452        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1453            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1454        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1455
1456    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1457        property_cls = expression.__class__
1458        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1459            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1460
1461        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1462        if not property_name:
1463            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1464
1465        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1466
1467    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1468        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1469            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1470            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1471
1472            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1473            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1474                like = f"({like})"
1475
1476            return like
1477
1478        if expression.expressions:
1479            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1480
1481        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1482        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1483
1484    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1485        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1486        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1487        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1488
1489    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1490        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1491        local = expression.args.get("local")
1492        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1493        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1494        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1495        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1496        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1497
1498    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1499        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1501        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1502
1503    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1504        if expression.args.get("default"):
1505            property = "DEFAULT"
1506        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1507            property = "ON"
1508        else:
1509            property = "OFF"
1510        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1511
1512    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("no"):
1514            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1515        if expression.args.get("default"):
1516            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1517
1518        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1519        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1520
1521    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1522        default = expression.args.get("default")
1523        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1524        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1525        if default or minimum or maximum:
1526            if default:
1527                prop = "DEFAULT"
1528            elif minimum:
1529                prop = "MINIMUM"
1530            else:
1531                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1532            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1533        units = expression.args.get("units")
1534        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1535        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1536
1537    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1538        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1539        always = expression.args.get("always")
1540        default = expression.args.get("default")
1541        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1542        never = expression.args.get("never")
1543
1544        if autotemp is not None:
1545            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1546        elif always:
1547            prop = "ALWAYS"
1548        elif default:
1549            prop = "DEFAULT"
1550        elif manual:
1551            prop = "MANUAL"
1552        elif never:
1553            prop = "NEVER"
1554        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1555
1556    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1557        no = expression.args.get("no")
1558        no = " NO" if no else ""
1559        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1560        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1561        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1562        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1563        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1564
1565    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1567            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1568        if expression.this:
1569            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1571            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1572
1573        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1574        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1575        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1576
1577    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579
1580        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1581        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1582            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1583        else:
1584            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1585
1586        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1587
1588    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1589        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1590        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1591        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1592        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1593        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1594        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1595        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1596
1597    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1598        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1599        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1600        statistics_sql = ""
1601        if statistics is not None:
1602            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1603        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1604
1605    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1607        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1608        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1609        data_consistency = (
1610            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1611        )
1612        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1613        retention_period = (
1614            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1615        )
1616
1617        if this:
1618            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1619        else:
1620            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1621
1622        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1623
1624        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1625
1626    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1627        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1628        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1629
1630        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1631            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1632        else:
1633            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1634
1635        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1636        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1637        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1638        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1639        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1640        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1641        if is_function:
1642            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1643        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1644
1645        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1646        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1647        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1648        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1649        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1650        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1651        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1652        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1653
1654        if self.RETURNING_END:
1655            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1656        else:
1657            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1658
1659        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1660        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1661        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1662        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1663
1664        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1665        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1666
1667    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1668        return self.set_operations(expression)
1669
1670    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1671        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1672
1673    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1674        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1675
1676    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1678        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1681        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1682
1683    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1684        return expression.name
1685
1686    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1687        return expression.name
1688
1689    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1690        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1691
1692        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1693        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1694
1695        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1696        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1697        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1698
1699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1700        if expressions:
1701            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1702            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1703
1704        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1705
1706    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1707        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1708
1709    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1710        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1711        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1712        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1713        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1714        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1715        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1716        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1717        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1718        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1719        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1720        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1721        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1722        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1723
1724    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1725        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1726
1727    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1728        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1729        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1730        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1731        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1732
1733    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1736        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1737        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1738
1739    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1740        return ".".join(
1741            self.sql(part)
1742            for part in (
1743                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1744                expression.args.get("db"),
1745                expression.args.get("this"),
1746            )
1747            if part is not None
1748        )
1749
1750    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1751        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1752        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1753        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1754        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1755        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1756        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1757        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1758        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1759        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1760        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1761        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1762        joins = self.indent(
1763            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1764        )
1765        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1766
1767        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1768        if file_format:
1769            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1770            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1771            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1772
1773        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1774        if ordinality:
1775            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1776            alias = ""
1777
1778        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1779        if when:
1780            table = f"{table} {when}"
1781
1782        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1783        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1784
1785        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1786        if rows_from:
1787            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1788
1789        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1790
1791    def tablesample_sql(
1792        self,
1793        expression: exp.TableSample,
1794        sep: str = " AS ",
1795        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1796    ) -> str:
1797        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1798            table = expression.this.copy()
1799            table.set("alias", None)
1800            this = self.sql(table)
1801            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1802        else:
1803            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804            alias = ""
1805
1806        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1807        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1808        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1809        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1810        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1811        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1812        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1813        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1814        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1815
1816        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1817        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1818            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1819
1820        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1821        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1822            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1823
1824        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1825        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1826            expr = f"({expr})"
1827
1828        return (
1829            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1830        )
1831
1832    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1833        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1834
1835        if expression.this:
1836            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1837            if not expressions:
1838                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1839
1840            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1841            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1842            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1843            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1844            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1845
1846        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1847        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1848        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1849
1850        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1851        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1852            field = f"IN ({field})"
1853
1854        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1855        if include_nulls is not None:
1856            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1857        else:
1858            nulls = ""
1859
1860        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1861        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1862        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1863
1864    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1865        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1866        kind = expression.text("kind")
1867        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1868        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1869
1870    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1871        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1872
1873    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1876        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1877        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1878        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1879        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1880        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1881        if self.RETURNING_END:
1882            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1883        else:
1884            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1885        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1886        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1887
1888    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1889        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1890
1891        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1892        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1893            args = self.expressions(expression)
1894            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1895            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1896            values = (
1897                f"({values})"
1898                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1899                else values
1900            )
1901            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1902
1903        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1904        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1905        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1906
1907        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1908
1909        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1910            row = tup.expressions
1911
1912            if i == 0 and column_names:
1913                row = [
1914                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1915                ]
1916
1917            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1918
1919        if self.pretty:
1920            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1921            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1922            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1923            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1924            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1925
1926        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1927        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1928        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1929
1930    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1931        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1932
1933    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1934        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1935        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1936        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1937
1938    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1939        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1940
1941    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1942        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1943        if group_by_all is True:
1944            modifier = " ALL"
1945        elif group_by_all is False:
1946            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1947        else:
1948            modifier = ""
1949
1950        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1951
1952        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1953        grouping_sets = (
1954            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1955        )
1956
1957        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1958        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1959            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1960        else:
1961            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1962            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1963
1964        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1965        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1966            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1967        else:
1968            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1969            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1970
1971        groupings = csv(
1972            grouping_sets,
1973            cube_sql,
1974            rollup_sql,
1975            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1976            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1977        )
1978
1979        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1980            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1981
1982        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1983
1984    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1985        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1986        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1987
1988    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1989        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1990        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1991        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1992        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1993        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1994        return start + connect
1995
1996    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1997        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1998
1999    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2000        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2001            side = None
2002        else:
2003            side = expression.side
2004
2005        op_sql = " ".join(
2006            op
2007            for op in (
2008                expression.method,
2009                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2010                side,
2011                expression.kind,
2012                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2013            )
2014            if op
2015        )
2016        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2017        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2018        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2019        using = expression.args.get("using")
2020
2021        if not on_sql and using:
2022            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2023
2024        this = expression.this
2025        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2026
2027        if on_sql:
2028            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2029            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2030            if using:
2031                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2032            else:
2033                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2034        elif not op_sql:
2035            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2036                return f" {this_sql}"
2037
2038            return f", {this_sql}"
2039
2040        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2041            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2042
2043        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2044
2045    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2046        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2047        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2048        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2049
2050    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2051        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2052
2053        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2054        if cross_apply is True:
2055            op = "INNER JOIN "
2056        elif cross_apply is False:
2057            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2058        else:
2059            op = ""
2060
2061        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2062
2063    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065
2066        if expression.args.get("view"):
2067            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2068            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2069            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2070            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2071            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2072            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2073
2074        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2075        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2076        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2077
2078    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2080
2081        args = [
2082            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2083            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2084            if e
2085        ]
2086
2087        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2088        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2089        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2090        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2091
2092        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2093
2094    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2096        value = expression.expression
2097        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2098        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2099        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2100        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2101
2102    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2103        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2104        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2106        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2107        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2108        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2109        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2110        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2111
2112    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2113        expressions = (
2114            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2115        )
2116        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2117        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2118
2119    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2120        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2121
2122    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2123        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2124            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2125            return ""
2126
2127        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2128        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2129        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2130        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2131
2132        if wait is not None:
2133            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2134                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2135            else:
2136                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2137
2138        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2139
2140    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2141        text = expression.this or ""
2142        if expression.is_string:
2143            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2144        return text
2145
2146    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2147        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2148            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2149            text = "".join(
2150                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2151            )
2152
2153        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2154            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2155        )
2156
2157    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2158        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2159        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2160        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2161        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2162        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2163        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2164        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2165        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2166        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2167        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2168        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2169
2170    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2171        return "NULL"
2172
2173    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2174        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2175
2176    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2178        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2179        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2180        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2181        interpolated_values = [
2182            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2183            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2184        ]
2185        interpolate = (
2186            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2187        )
2188        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2189
2190    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2191        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2192        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2193        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2194        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2195        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2196        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2197        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2198
2199    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2200        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2201
2202    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2203        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2204
2205    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2206        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2207
2208    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2209        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2210        asc = not desc
2211
2212        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2213        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2214        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2215        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2216        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2217
2218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2219
2220        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2221        nulls_sort_change = ""
2222        if nulls_first and (
2223            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2224        ):
2225            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2226        elif (
2227            nulls_last
2228            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2229            and not nulls_are_last
2230        ):
2231            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2232
2233        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2234        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2235            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2236            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2237                self.unsupported(
2238                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2239                )
2240                nulls_sort_change = ""
2241            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2242                if expression.this.is_int:
2243                    self.unsupported(
2244                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2245                    )
2246                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2247                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2248                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2249                nulls_sort_change = ""
2250
2251        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2252        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2253
2254        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2255
2256    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2257        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2258        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2259
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261
2262        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2263
2264    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2265        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2266        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2267        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2268        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2269        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2270        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2271        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2272        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2273        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2274        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2275        definition_sqls = [
2276            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2277            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2278        ]
2279        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2280        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2281        body = "".join(
2282            (
2283                partition,
2284                order,
2285                measures,
2286                rows,
2287                after,
2288                pattern,
2289                define,
2290            )
2291        )
2292        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2293        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2294        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2295
2296    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2297        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2298
2299        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2300            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2301        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2302            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2303
2304        return csv(
2305            *sqls,
2306            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2307            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2308            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2309            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2310            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2311            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2312            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2313            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2314            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2315            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2316            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2317            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2318            self.options_modifier(expression),
2319            sep="",
2320        )
2321
2322    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2323        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2324        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2325
2326    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2327        return ""
2328
2329    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2330        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2331    ) -> t.List[str]:
2332        return [
2333            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2334            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2335        ]
2336
2337    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2338        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2339        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2340        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2341
2342    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2343        into = expression.args.get("into")
2344        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2345            into.pop()
2346
2347        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2348        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2349        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2350        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2351
2352        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2353        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2354            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2355            limit.pop()
2356        else:
2357            top = ""
2358
2359        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2360
2361        if kind:
2362            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2363                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2364            else:
2365                if kind == "STRUCT":
2366                    expressions = self.expressions(
2367                        sqls=[
2368                            self.sql(
2369                                exp.Struct(
2370                                    expressions=[
2371                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2372                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2373                                        else e
2374                                        for e in expression.expressions
2375                                    ]
2376                                )
2377                            )
2378                        ]
2379                    )
2380                kind = ""
2381
2382        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2383        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2384        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2385        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2386        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2387            expression,
2388            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2389            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2390            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2391        )
2392
2393        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2394
2395        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2396            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2397                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2398            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2399                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2400            else:
2401                table_kind = ""
2402            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2403
2404        return sql
2405
2406    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2409        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2410
2411    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2412        if expression.expressions:
2413            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2414        return ""
2415
2416    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2417        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2418        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2419        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2420        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2421        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2422        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2423        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2424
2425    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2427        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2428
2429    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        kind = expression.text("kind")
2432        if kind:
2433            kind = f"{kind}."
2434        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2435
2436    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2437        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2438
2439    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2440        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2441        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2442        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2443        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2444        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2445
2446    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2447        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2448        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2449
2450    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2451        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2452            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2453            order = expression.args.get("order")
2454
2455            if limit or order:
2456                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2457
2458                if limit:
2459                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2460                if order:
2461                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2462                return self.sql(select)
2463
2464        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2465        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2466
2467        while stack:
2468            node = stack.pop()
2469
2470            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2471                stack.append(node.expression)
2472                stack.append(
2473                    self.maybe_comment(
2474                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2475                        comments=node.comments,
2476                        separated=True,
2477                    )
2478                )
2479                stack.append(node.this)
2480            else:
2481                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2482
2483        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2484        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2485        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2486
2487    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2488        return self.set_operations(expression)
2489
2490    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2491        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2492        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2493        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2494        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2495
2496    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2497        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2498
2499        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2500        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2501
2502        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2503            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2504                alias.append("columns", offset)
2505
2506        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2507            columns = alias.columns
2508            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2509        else:
2510            alias = self.sql(alias)
2511
2512        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2513        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2514            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2515        else:
2516            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2517                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2518            elif offset:
2519                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2520            else:
2521                suffix = alias
2522
2523        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2524
2525    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2526        return ""
2527
2528    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2529        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2530        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2531
2532    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2535        order = expression.args.get("order")
2536        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2537        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2538        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2539        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2540
2541        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2542
2543        first = expression.args.get("first")
2544        if first is None:
2545            first = ""
2546        else:
2547            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2548
2549        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2550            return f"{this} {alias}"
2551
2552        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2553        return f"{this} ({args})"
2554
2555    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2556        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2557        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2558
2559    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2560        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2561        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2562        end = (
2563            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2564            or "CURRENT ROW"
2565        )
2566        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2567
2568    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2571        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2572
2573    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2576        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2577        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2578
2579    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2580        return apply_index_offset(
2581            expression.this,
2582            expression.expressions,
2583            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2584        )
2585
2586    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2587        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2588        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2589        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2590
2591    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2592        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2593
2594    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2596        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2597            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2598                this = self.wrap(this)
2599            return f"ANY{this}"
2600        return f"ANY {this}"
2601
2602    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2603        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2604
2605    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2607        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2608
2609        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2610            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2611            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2612
2613        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2614
2615        if default:
2616            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2617
2618        statements.append("END")
2619
2620        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2621            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2622
2623        return " ".join(statements)
2624
2625    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2627        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2628        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2629
2630    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2631        order = expression.args.get("order")
2632        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2633        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2634
2635    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2636        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2637        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2638        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2639
2640    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2641        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2642
2643        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2644            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2645        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2646            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2647        else:
2648            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2649
2650    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2651        args = expression.expressions
2652        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2653            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2654
2655        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2656            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2657
2658        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2659            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2660
2661        return args
2662
2663    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2664        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2665
2666        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2667        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2668            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2669
2670        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2671
2672    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2673        return self.func(
2674            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2675        )
2676
2677    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2678        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2679        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2680
2681    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2682        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2683        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2684        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2685        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2686        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2687        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2688        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2689        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2690
2691    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2692        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2693        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2694        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2695        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2696
2697    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2698        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2699
2700    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2701        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2702        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2703        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2704
2705    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2706        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2707
2708    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2709        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2710        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2711            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2712
2713        return path
2714
2715    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2716        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2717            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2718            if not callable(transform):
2719                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2720                return ""
2721
2722            return transform(self, expression)
2723
2724        if isinstance(expression, int):
2725            return str(expression)
2726
2727        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2728            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2729            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2730        else:
2731            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2732            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2733
2734        return escaped
2735
2736    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2737        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2738
2739    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2740        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2741        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2742
2743        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2744        if unique_keys is not None:
2745            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2746        else:
2747            unique_keys = ""
2748
2749        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2750        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2751        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2752        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2753
2754        return self.func(
2755            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2756            *expression.expressions,
2757            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2758        )
2759
2760    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2761        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2762
2763    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2764        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2765        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2766        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2767        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2768        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2769        return self.func(
2770            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2771        )
2772
2773    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2776        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2777        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2778        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2779        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2780        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2781        return self.func(
2782            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2783            this,
2784            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2785        )
2786
2787    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2788        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2789        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2790        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2791
2792        if nested_schema:
2793            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2794
2795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2796        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2797        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2798        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2799
2800    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2801        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2802
2803    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2805        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2806        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2807        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2808        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2809        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2810        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2811        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2812        return self.func(
2813            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2814        )
2815
2816    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2820        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2821        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2822        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2823
2824    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2827        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2828        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2829        with_ = (
2830            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2831            if expressions
2832            else ""
2833        )
2834        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2835
2836    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2837        query = expression.args.get("query")
2838        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2839        field = expression.args.get("field")
2840        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2841
2842        if query:
2843            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2844        elif unnest:
2845            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2846        elif field:
2847            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2848        else:
2849            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2850
2851        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2852
2853    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2854        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2855
2856    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2857        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2858        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2859            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2860        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2861
2862        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2863            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2864            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2865
2866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2867        if this:
2868            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2869            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2870
2871        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2872
2873    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2874        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2875
2876    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2878        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2879        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2880        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2881        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2882        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2883
2884    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2885        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2886
2887    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2888        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2889        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2890
2891    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2892        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2893        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2894        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2895        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2896
2897    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2898        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2899
2900    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2901        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2902        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2903        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2904
2905    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2906        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2907        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2908
2909        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2910            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2911        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2912            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2913
2914        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2915
2916    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2918
2919    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2921        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2922        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2923
2924    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2926        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2927        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2928
2929    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2932        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2933
2934    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2936
2937    def and_sql(
2938        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2939    ) -> str:
2940        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2941
2942    def or_sql(
2943        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2944    ) -> str:
2945        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2946
2947    def xor_sql(
2948        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2949    ) -> str:
2950        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2951
2952    def connector_sql(
2953        self,
2954        expression: exp.Connector,
2955        op: str,
2956        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2957    ) -> str:
2958        if stack is not None:
2959            if expression.expressions:
2960                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2961            else:
2962                stack.append(expression.right)
2963                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2964                    for comment in expression.comments:
2965                        if comment:
2966                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2967                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2968            return op
2969
2970        stack = [expression]
2971        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2972        ops = set()
2973
2974        while stack:
2975            node = stack.pop()
2976            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2977                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2978            else:
2979                sql = self.sql(node)
2980                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2981                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2982                else:
2983                    sqls.append(sql)
2984
2985        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2986        return sep.join(sqls)
2987
2988    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2989        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2990
2991    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2992        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2993
2994    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2995        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2996
2997    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2998        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2999
3000    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3001        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3002
3003    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3004        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3005
3006    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3007        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3008        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3009        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3010        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3011        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3012        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3013        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3014
3015    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3016        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3018
3019    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3020        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3021            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3022        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3023
3024    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3025        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3026
3027    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3029        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3030        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3031        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3032        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3033        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3034
3035    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3038        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3039        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3040        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3041        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3042        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3043        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3044        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3045
3046    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3047        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3048        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3049        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3050        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3051
3052        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3053            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3054
3055        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3056
3057    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3058        return "BEGIN"
3059
3060    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3061        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3062        if chain is not None:
3063            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3064
3065        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3066
3067    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3068        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3069        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3070        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3071
3072    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074
3075        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3076        if dtype:
3077            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3078            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3079            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3080            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3081            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3082
3083        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3084        if default:
3085            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3086
3087        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3088        if comment:
3089            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3090
3091        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3092        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3093
3094        if not drop and not allow_null:
3095            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3096
3097        if allow_null is not None:
3098            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3099            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3100
3101        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3102
3103    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3105        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3106            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3107        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3108
3109    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3110        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3112        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3113        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3114        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3115
3116    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3117        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3118            # Remove db from tables
3119            expression = expression.transform(
3120                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3121            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3122        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3123        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3124
3125    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3126        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3127        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3128        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3129        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3130
3131    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3132        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3133        return f"SET {exprs}"
3134
3135    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3136        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3137
3138        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3139            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3140        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3141            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3142        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3143            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3144        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3145            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3146        else:
3147            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3148
3149        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3150        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3151        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3152        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3153        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3154        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3155        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3156        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3157
3158    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3159        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3160            return self.expressions(
3161                expression,
3162                key="actions",
3163                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3164                skip_first=True,
3165            )
3166        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3167
3168    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3169        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3170        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3171        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3172
3173    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3174        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3175
3176    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3177        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3178
3179        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3180            case = exp.case()
3181            for arg in expression.expressions:
3182                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3183            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3184
3185        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3186
3187        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3188        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3189        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3190
3191    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3192        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3193
3194    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3195        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3196
3197    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3198        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3199        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3200        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3201        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3202
3203    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3204        return self.sql(
3205            exp.Cast(
3206                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3207                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3208            )
3209        )
3210
3211    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3212        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3213            return self.func(
3214                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3215            )
3216        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3217
3218    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3219        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3220
3221        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3222            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3223
3224        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3225            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3226                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3227
3228        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3229            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3230                return self.sql(
3231                    exp.cast(
3232                        l / r,
3233                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3234                    )
3235                )
3236
3237        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3238
3239    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3241
3242    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3244
3245    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3246        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3247
3248    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3250
3251    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3253
3254    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3256
3257    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3259
3260    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3262
3263    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3265
3266    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3268
3269    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3271
3272    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3273        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3274            return self.sql(
3275                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3276            )
3277        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3278
3279    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3280        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3281
3282    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3284
3285    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3287
3288    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3290
3291    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3293
3294    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3296
3297    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3299
3300    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3302
3303    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3305
3306    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3308
3309    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3310        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3311
3312    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3314
3315    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3316        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3317
3318    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3319        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3320            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3321            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3322
3323        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3324
3325    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3326        this = expression.this
3327        expr = expression.expression
3328
3329        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3330            this, expr = expr, this
3331        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3332            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3333                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3334
3335            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3336
3337        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3338
3339    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3340        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3341        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3343        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3344        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3345
3346    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3347        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3348        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3349
3350    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3351        args = []
3352
3353        for key in expression.arg_types:
3354            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3355
3356            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3357                for value in arg_value:
3358                    args.append(value)
3359            elif arg_value is not None:
3360                args.append(arg_value)
3361
3362        if self.normalize_functions:
3363            name = expression.sql_name()
3364        else:
3365            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3366
3367        return self.func(name, *args)
3368
3369    def func(
3370        self,
3371        name: str,
3372        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3373        prefix: str = "(",
3374        suffix: str = ")",
3375    ) -> str:
3376        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3377
3378    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3379        arg_sqls = tuple(
3380            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3381        )
3382        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3383            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3384        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3385
3386    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3387        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3388
3389    def format_time(
3390        self,
3391        expression: exp.Expression,
3392        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3393        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3394    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3395        return format_time(
3396            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3397            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3398            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3399        )
3400
3401    def expressions(
3402        self,
3403        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3404        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3405        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3406        flat: bool = False,
3407        indent: bool = True,
3408        skip_first: bool = False,
3409        skip_last: bool = False,
3410        sep: str = ", ",
3411        prefix: str = "",
3412        dynamic: bool = False,
3413        new_line: bool = False,
3414    ) -> str:
3415        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3416
3417        if not expressions:
3418            return ""
3419
3420        if flat:
3421            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3422
3423        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3424        result_sqls = []
3425
3426        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3427            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3428            if not sql:
3429                continue
3430
3431            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3432
3433            if self.pretty:
3434                if self.leading_comma:
3435                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3436                else:
3437                    result_sqls.append(
3438                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3439                    )
3440            else:
3441                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3442
3443        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3444            if new_line:
3445                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3446                result_sqls.append("")
3447            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3448        else:
3449            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3450        return (
3451            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3452            if indent
3453            else result_sql
3454        )
3455
3456    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3457        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3458        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3459        if flat:
3460            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3461        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3462
3463    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3464        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3465        if not property_name:
3466            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3467        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3468
3469    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3470        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3471
3472    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3473        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3474
3475    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3477        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3478        expressions = (
3479            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3480        )
3481        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3482
3483    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3485        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3486        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3487
3488    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3489        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3490
3491    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3492        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3493        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3494        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3495        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3496
3497        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3498        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3499            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3500            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3501            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3502            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3503        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3504            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3505                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3506            else:
3507                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3508        else:
3509            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3510        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3511
3512    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3513        table = expression.this
3514        table_alias = ""
3515
3516        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3517        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3518            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3519            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3520
3521        this = self.sql(table)
3522        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3523        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3524        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3525        sep = self.sep()
3526
3527        return self.prepend_ctes(
3528            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3529        )
3530
3531    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3532        if expression.args.get("format"):
3533            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3534
3535        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3536
3537    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3538        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3539            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3540            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3541
3542        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3543        if not fmt:
3544            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3545            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3546
3547        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3548
3549    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3551        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3552        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3553        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3554        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3555
3556    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3558        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3559        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3560        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3561
3562    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3564
3565    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3566        return ""
3567
3568    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3569        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3570        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3571        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3572        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3573        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3574
3575    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3577        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3578
3579        if having:
3580            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3581
3582        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3583
3584    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3585        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3586        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3587        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3588        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3589        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3590        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3591        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3592        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3593        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3594        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3595        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3596        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3597        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3598
3599    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3600        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3601        if key_block_size:
3602            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3603
3604        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3605        if using:
3606            return f"USING {using}"
3607
3608        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3609        if parser:
3610            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3611
3612        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3613        if comment:
3614            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3615
3616        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3617        if visible is not None:
3618            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3619
3620        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3621        if engine_attr:
3622            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3623
3624        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3625        if secondary_engine_attr:
3626            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3627
3628        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3629        return ""
3630
3631    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3632        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3633        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3634
3635    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3636        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3637        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3640        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3641        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3642        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3643        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3644        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3645        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3646        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3647
3648    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3649        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3650            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3651
3652        case = exp.Case().when(
3653            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3654            expression.args["true"],
3655            copy=False,
3656        )
3657        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3658        if else_cond:
3659            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3660
3661        return self.sql(case)
3662
3663    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3665        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3666        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3667        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3668        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3669        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3670
3671    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3672        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3673
3674    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3675        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3676
3677    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3678        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3679        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3680        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3681        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3682        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3683        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3684
3685    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3687        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3688        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3689
3690    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3692        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3693        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3694
3695    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3696        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3697
3698    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3699        arg = expression.this
3700        if not arg.type:
3701            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3702
3703            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3704
3705        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3706            return self.sql(arg)
3707
3708        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3709        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3710
3711    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3712        this = expression.this
3713        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3714            return self.sql(this)
3715
3716        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3717
3718    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3719        this = expression.this
3720        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3721            return self.sql(this)
3722
3723        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3724
3725    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3726        this = expression.this
3727        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3728
3729        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3730            return self.sql(
3731                exp.cast(
3732                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3733                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3734                )
3735            )
3736
3737        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3738            return self.sql(this)
3739
3740        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3741
3742    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3743        return self.sql(
3744            exp.func(
3745                "DATEDIFF",
3746                expression.this,
3747                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3748                "day",
3749            )
3750        )
3751
3752    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3753        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3754            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3755
3756        unit = expression.text("unit")
3757        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3758            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3759
3760        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3761
3762    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3763        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3764
3765        return self.func(
3766            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3767        )
3768
3769    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3770        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3771            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3772            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3773            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3774            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3775
3776        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3777
3778        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3779        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3780            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3781
3782        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3783
3784    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3785        expression.set(
3786            "expressions",
3787            [
3788                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3789                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3790                else e
3791                for e in expression.expressions
3792            ],
3793        )
3794
3795        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3796
3797    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3798        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3799        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3800
3801        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3802
3803    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3804        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3805        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3806
3807        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3808
3809        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3810        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3811
3812        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3813        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3814
3815        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3816        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3817
3818        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3819        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3820
3821        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3822
3823    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3824    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3825    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3826        to = expression.this
3827        value = expression.expression
3828        style = expression.args.get("style")
3829        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3830        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3831
3832        if not to or not value:
3833            return ""
3834
3835        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3836        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3837            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3838
3839        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3840        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3841
3842        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3843        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3844            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3845
3846            style_value = style.name
3847            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3848            if not converted_style:
3849                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3850
3851            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3852
3853            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3854                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3855            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3856                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3857            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3858                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3859            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3860                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3861
3862        if not transformed:
3863            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3864
3865        return self.sql(transformed)
3866
3867    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3868        this = expression.this
3869        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3870            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3871            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3872
3873        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3874            return f".{this}"
3875
3876        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3877        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3878
3879    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3880        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3881        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3882
3883    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3884        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3885            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3886
3887            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3888
3889        return expression
3890
3891    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3892        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3893            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3894            mods = sorted(
3895                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3896                key=lambda x: 0
3897                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3898                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3899            )
3900
3901            if mods:
3902                mod = mods[0]
3903                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3904                this.meta["inline"] = True
3905                mod.this.replace(this)
3906                return self.sql(expression.this)
3907
3908            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3909
3910            if agg_func:
3911                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3912
3913        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3914
3915    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3916        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3917        if self.pretty:
3918            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3919        return string
3920
3921    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3922        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3923
3924        if expression.expressions:
3925            upper = option.upper()
3926
3927            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3928            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3929
3930            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3931            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3932            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3933            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3934
3935        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3936
3937        if not value:
3938            return option
3939
3940        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3941
3942        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3943
3944    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3945        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3946        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3947            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3948            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3949            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3950        else:
3951            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3952            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3953            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3954
3955        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3956        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3957
3958        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3959        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3960
3961        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3962        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3963
3964        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3965        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3966
3967        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3968
3969    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3971        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3972
3973        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3974        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3975        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3976        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3977
3978        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3979        params = self.expressions(
3980            expression,
3981            key="params",
3982            sep=sep,
3983            new_line=True,
3984            skip_last=True,
3985            skip_first=True,
3986            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3987        )
3988
3989        if params:
3990            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3991                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3992            elif not self.pretty:
3993                params = f" {params}"
3994
3995        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3996
3997    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3998        return ""
3999
4000    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4001        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4002        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4003        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4004        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4005        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4006
4007        if filter_col or retention_period:
4008            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4009
4010        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4011
4012    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4013        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4014    ) -> str:
4015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4016        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4017        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4018        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4019
4020    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4022        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4023        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4024
4025    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4026        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4027
4028    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4030        expr = expression.expression
4031
4032        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4033            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4034            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4035        else:
4036            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4037
4038        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4039
4040    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4041        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4042            return self.sql(expression.this)
4043
4044        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4045
4046    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4047        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4048        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4049
4050        if lower and upper:
4051            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4052        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4053
4054    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4055        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4056        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4057        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4058        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4059        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4060        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4061
4062        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4063
4064    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4065        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4066
4067        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4068        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4069            fill_pattern = "' '"
4070
4071        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4072
4073    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4074        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4075        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4076
4077    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4078        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4079
4080        parent = expression.parent
4081        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4082            parent = parent.parent
4083
4084        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4085            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4086
4087        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4088            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4089
4090        return self.sql(generate_series)
4091
4092    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4093        exprs = expression.expressions
4094        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4095            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4096        else:
4097            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4098
4099        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4100
4101    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4102        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4103            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4104
4105        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4106        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4107        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4108
4109        if source_tz and timestamp:
4110            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4111                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4112            )
4113
4114        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4115
4116        return self.sql(expr)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
586    def __init__(
587        self,
588        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
589        identify: str | bool = False,
590        normalize: bool = False,
591        pad: int = 2,
592        indent: int = 2,
593        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
594        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
595        max_unsupported: int = 3,
596        leading_comma: bool = False,
597        max_text_width: int = 80,
598        comments: bool = True,
599        dialect: DialectType = None,
600    ):
601        import sqlglot
602        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
603
604        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
605        self.identify = identify
606        self.normalize = normalize
607        self.pad = pad
608        self._indent = indent
609        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
610        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
611        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
612        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
613        self.comments = comments
614        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
615
616        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
617        self.normalize_functions = (
618            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
619        )
620
621        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
622        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
623            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
624        )
625        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
627        )
628
629        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
631    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
632        """
633        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
634
635        Args:
636            expression: The syntax tree.
637            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
638                it is safer to copy.
639
640        Returns:
641            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
642        """
643        if copy:
644            expression = expression.copy()
645
646        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
647
648        self.unsupported_messages = []
649        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
650
651        if self.pretty:
652            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
653
654        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
655            return sql
656
657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
658            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
659                logger.warning(msg)
660        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
661            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
662
663        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
665    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
666        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
667        if (
668            not expression.parent
669            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
670            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
671        ):
672            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
673
674            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
675
676        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
677            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
678
679            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
680
681        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
683    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
684        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
685            raise UnsupportedError(message)
686        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
688    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
689        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
691    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
692        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
694    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
695        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
696        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
697        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
699    def maybe_comment(
700        self,
701        sql: str,
702        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
703        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
704        separated: bool = False,
705    ) -> str:
706        comments = (
707            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
708            if self.comments
709            else None
710        )
711
712        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
713            return sql
714
715        comments_sql = " ".join(
716            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
717        )
718
719        if not comments_sql:
720            return sql
721
722        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
723
724        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
725            return (
726                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
727                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
728                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
729            )
730
731        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
733    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
734        this_sql = (
735            self.sql(expression)
736            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
737            else self.sql(expression, "this")
738        )
739        if not this_sql:
740            return "()"
741
742        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
743        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
745    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
746        original = self.identify
747        self.identify = False
748        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
749        self.identify = original
750        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
752    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
753        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
754            return name.upper()
755        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
756            return name.lower()
757        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
759    def indent(
760        self,
761        sql: str,
762        level: int = 0,
763        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
764        skip_first: bool = False,
765        skip_last: bool = False,
766    ) -> str:
767        if not self.pretty or not sql:
768            return sql
769
770        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
771        lines = sql.split("\n")
772
773        return "\n".join(
774            (
775                line
776                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
777                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
778            )
779            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
780        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
782    def sql(
783        self,
784        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
785        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
786        comment: bool = True,
787    ) -> str:
788        if not expression:
789            return ""
790
791        if isinstance(expression, str):
792            return expression
793
794        if key:
795            value = expression.args.get(key)
796            if value:
797                return self.sql(value)
798            return ""
799
800        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
801
802        if callable(transform):
803            sql = transform(self, expression)
804        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
805            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
806
807            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
808                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
809            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
810                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
811            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
812                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
813            else:
814                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
815        else:
816            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
817
818        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
820    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
821        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
822        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
823        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
825    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
826        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
827        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
828        options = expression.args.get("options")
829        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
830        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
831        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
832        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
833        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
835    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
836        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
837            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
838        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
839        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
841    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
842        return ".".join(
843            self.sql(part)
844            for part in (
845                expression.args.get("catalog"),
846                expression.args.get("db"),
847                expression.args.get("table"),
848                expression.args.get("this"),
849            )
850            if part
851        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
853    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
854        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
855
856        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
857            join_mark = ""
858            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
859
860        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
862    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
864        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
865        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
866        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
868    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
869        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
871        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
872        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
873        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
874        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
875        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
876        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
877
878        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
879            kind = ""
880
881        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
883    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
885        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
886        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
888    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
890        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
891            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
892        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
893            persisted = " PERSISTED"
894        else:
895            persisted = ""
896        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
898    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
899        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
901    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
902        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
903            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
904        else:
905            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
906
907        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
909    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
910        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
911    ) -> str:
912        this = ""
913        if expression.this is not None:
914            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
915            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
916
917        start = expression.args.get("start")
918        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
919        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
920        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
921        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
922        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
923        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
924        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
925        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
926        cycle_sql = ""
927
928        if cycle is not None:
929            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
930            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
931
932        sequence_opts = ""
933        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
934            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
935            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
936
937        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
938        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
939
940        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
942    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
943        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
944    ) -> str:
945        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
946        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
947        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
949    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
950        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
951    ) -> str:
952        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
954    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
955        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
957    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
958        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
960    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
961        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
962        if desc is not None:
963            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
964        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
966    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
968        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
969        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
970        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
971        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
972        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
973        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
974        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
976    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
977        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 979    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 980        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 981        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 982        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 983
 984        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 985
 986        properties_sql = ""
 987        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 988            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 989        ):
 990            properties_sql = self.sql(
 991                exp.Properties(
 992                    expressions=[
 993                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 994                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 995                    ]
 996                )
 997            )
 998
 999            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1000                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1001            elif not self.pretty:
1002                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1003                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1004
1005        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1006        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1007
1008        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1009        if expression_sql:
1010            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1011
1012            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1013                postalias_props_sql = ""
1014                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1015                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1016                        exp.Properties(
1017                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1018                        ),
1019                        wrapped=False,
1020                    )
1021                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1022                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1023
1024        postindex_props_sql = ""
1025        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1026            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1027                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1028                wrapped=False,
1029                prefix=" ",
1030            )
1031
1032        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1033        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1034        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1035
1036        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1037        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1038        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1039
1040        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1041        if clustered is None:
1042            clustered_sql = ""
1043        elif clustered:
1044            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1045        else:
1046            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1047
1048        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1049        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1050            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1051                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1052                sep=" ",
1053                prefix=" ",
1054                wrapped=False,
1055            )
1056
1057        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1058
1059        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1060        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1061            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1062                exp.Properties(
1063                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1064                ),
1065                sep=" ",
1066                prefix=" ",
1067                wrapped=False,
1068            )
1069
1070        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1071        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1072        no_schema_binding = (
1073            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1074        )
1075
1076        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1077        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1078
1079        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1080        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1082    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1083        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1084        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1085        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1086        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1087        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1088        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1089        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1090        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1091        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1092        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1093
1094        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1095        if cache is None:
1096            cache_str = ""
1097        elif cache is True:
1098            cache_str = " CACHE"
1099        else:
1100            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1101
1102        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1103        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1104
1105        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1107    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1109        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1110        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1111        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1113    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1114        style = expression.args.get("style")
1115        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1116        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1118    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1119        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1120        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1122    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1123        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1124        if with_:
1125            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1126        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1128    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1129        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1130        recursive = (
1131            "RECURSIVE "
1132            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1133            else ""
1134        )
1135
1136        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1138    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1139        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1140
1141        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1142        if materialized is False:
1143            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1144        elif materialized:
1145            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1146
1147        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1149    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1150        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1151        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1152        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1153
1154        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1155            columns = ""
1156            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1157
1158        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1159            alias = self._next_name()
1160
1161        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1163    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1165        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1166            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1167        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1169    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1172            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1173        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1175    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1177        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1178            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1179        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1181    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1184
1185        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1186            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1187            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1188        else:
1189            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1190            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1191
1192        if escape:
1193            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1194            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1195        else:
1196            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1197            escape_sql = ""
1198
1199        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1200            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1201
1202        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1204    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1205        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1206        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1208    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1211        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1212        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1214    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1215        type_value = expression.this
1216
1217        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1218            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1219        else:
1220            type_sql = (
1221                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1222                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1223                else type_value
1224            )
1225
1226        nested = ""
1227        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1228        values = ""
1229
1230        if interior:
1231            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1232                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1233                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1234                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1235                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1236                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1237            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1238                nested = f" {interior}"
1239            else:
1240                nested = f"({interior})"
1241
1242        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1243        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1244            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1245            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1246        ):
1247            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1248
1249        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1251    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1252        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1253        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1254        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1255        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1257    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1260        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1261        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1262        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1263        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1264        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1265        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1266        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1267        if self.RETURNING_END:
1268            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1269        else:
1270            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1271        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1273    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1276        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1277        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1278        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1279        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1280        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1281        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1282        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1283        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1284        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1285        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1286        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1288    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1289        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1291    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1292        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1294    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1295        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1296        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1297        count = expression.args.get("count")
1298        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1299        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1300            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1301        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1302        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1304    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1305        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1306            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1308            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1309
1310        agg = expression.this
1311        agg_arg = agg.this
1312        cond = expression.expression.this
1313        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1314        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1316    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1317        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1318            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1319            return ""
1320
1321        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1323    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1324        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1325        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1326        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1327        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1328        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1329        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1330        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1331        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1332        if include:
1333            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1334        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1335        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1336        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1337        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1338        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1340
1341        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1343    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1344        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1345        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1346        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1347        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1349        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1350        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1351
1352        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1353
1354        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1355        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1357    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1358        text = expression.name
1359        lower = text.lower()
1360        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1361        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1362        if (
1363            expression.quoted
1364            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1365            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1366            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1367        ):
1368            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1369        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1371    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1372        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1373        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1374            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1375
1376        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1378    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1379        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1380        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1381            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1382        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1384    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1385        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1386        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1387        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1388        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1389        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1391    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1392        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1393        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1395    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1396        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1398    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1399        root_properties = []
1400        with_properties = []
1401
1402        for p in expression.expressions:
1403            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1404            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1405                with_properties.append(p)
1406            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1407                root_properties.append(p)
1408
1409        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1410        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1411
1412        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1413            with_props = " " + with_props
1414
1415        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1417    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1418        if properties.expressions:
1419            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1420        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1422    def properties(
1423        self,
1424        properties: exp.Properties,
1425        prefix: str = "",
1426        sep: str = ", ",
1427        suffix: str = "",
1428        wrapped: bool = True,
1429    ) -> str:
1430        if properties.expressions:
1431            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1432            if expressions:
1433                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1434                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1435        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1437    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1438        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1440    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1441        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1442        for p in properties.expressions:
1443            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1444            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1445                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1446            else:
1447                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1448
1449        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1451    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1452        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1453            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1454        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1456    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1457        property_cls = expression.__class__
1458        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1459            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1460
1461        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1462        if not property_name:
1463            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1464
1465        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1467    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1468        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1469            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1470            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1471
1472            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1473            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1474                like = f"({like})"
1475
1476            return like
1477
1478        if expression.expressions:
1479            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1480
1481        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1482        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1484    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1485        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1486        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1487        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1489    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1490        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1491        local = expression.args.get("local")
1492        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1493        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1494        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1495        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1496        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1498    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1499        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1501        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1503    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1504        if expression.args.get("default"):
1505            property = "DEFAULT"
1506        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1507            property = "ON"
1508        else:
1509            property = "OFF"
1510        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1512    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("no"):
1514            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1515        if expression.args.get("default"):
1516            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1517
1518        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1519        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1521    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1522        default = expression.args.get("default")
1523        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1524        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1525        if default or minimum or maximum:
1526            if default:
1527                prop = "DEFAULT"
1528            elif minimum:
1529                prop = "MINIMUM"
1530            else:
1531                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1532            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1533        units = expression.args.get("units")
1534        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1535        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1537    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1538        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1539        always = expression.args.get("always")
1540        default = expression.args.get("default")
1541        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1542        never = expression.args.get("never")
1543
1544        if autotemp is not None:
1545            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1546        elif always:
1547            prop = "ALWAYS"
1548        elif default:
1549            prop = "DEFAULT"
1550        elif manual:
1551            prop = "MANUAL"
1552        elif never:
1553            prop = "NEVER"
1554        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1556    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1557        no = expression.args.get("no")
1558        no = " NO" if no else ""
1559        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1560        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1561        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1562        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1563        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1565    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1567            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1568        if expression.this:
1569            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1571            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1572
1573        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1574        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1575        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1577    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579
1580        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1581        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1582            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1583        else:
1584            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1585
1586        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1588    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1589        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1590        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1591        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1592        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1593        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1594        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1595        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1597    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1598        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1599        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1600        statistics_sql = ""
1601        if statistics is not None:
1602            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1603        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1605    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1607        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1608        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1609        data_consistency = (
1610            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1611        )
1612        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1613        retention_period = (
1614            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1615        )
1616
1617        if this:
1618            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1619        else:
1620            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1621
1622        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1623
1624        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1626    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1627        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1628        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1629
1630        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1631            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1632        else:
1633            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1634
1635        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1636        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1637        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1638        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1639        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1640        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1641        if is_function:
1642            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1643        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1644
1645        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1646        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1647        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1648        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1649        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1650        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1651        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1652        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1653
1654        if self.RETURNING_END:
1655            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1656        else:
1657            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1658
1659        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1660        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1661        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1662        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1663
1664        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1665        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1667    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1668        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1670    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1671        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1673    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1674        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1676    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1678        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1681        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1683    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1684        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1686    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1687        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1689    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1690        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1691
1692        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1693        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1694
1695        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1696        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1697        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1698
1699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1700        if expressions:
1701            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1702            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1703
1704        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1706    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1707        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1709    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1710        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1711        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1712        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1713        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1714        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1715        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1716        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1717        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1718        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1719        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1720        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1721        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1722        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1724    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1725        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1727    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1728        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1729        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1730        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1731        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1733    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1736        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1737        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1739    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1740        return ".".join(
1741            self.sql(part)
1742            for part in (
1743                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1744                expression.args.get("db"),
1745                expression.args.get("this"),
1746            )
1747            if part is not None
1748        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1750    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1751        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1752        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1753        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1754        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1755        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1756        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1757        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1758        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1759        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1760        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1761        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1762        joins = self.indent(
1763            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1764        )
1765        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1766
1767        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1768        if file_format:
1769            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1770            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1771            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1772
1773        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1774        if ordinality:
1775            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1776            alias = ""
1777
1778        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1779        if when:
1780            table = f"{table} {when}"
1781
1782        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1783        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1784
1785        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1786        if rows_from:
1787            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1788
1789        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1791    def tablesample_sql(
1792        self,
1793        expression: exp.TableSample,
1794        sep: str = " AS ",
1795        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1796    ) -> str:
1797        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1798            table = expression.this.copy()
1799            table.set("alias", None)
1800            this = self.sql(table)
1801            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1802        else:
1803            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804            alias = ""
1805
1806        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1807        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1808        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1809        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1810        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1811        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1812        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1813        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1814        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1815
1816        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1817        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1818            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1819
1820        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1821        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1822            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1823
1824        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1825        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1826            expr = f"({expr})"
1827
1828        return (
1829            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1830        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1832    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1833        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1834
1835        if expression.this:
1836            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1837            if not expressions:
1838                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1839
1840            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1841            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1842            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1843            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1844            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1845
1846        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1847        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1848        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1849
1850        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1851        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1852            field = f"IN ({field})"
1853
1854        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1855        if include_nulls is not None:
1856            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1857        else:
1858            nulls = ""
1859
1860        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1861        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1862        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1864    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1865        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1866        kind = expression.text("kind")
1867        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1868        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1870    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1871        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1873    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1876        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1877        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1878        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1879        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1880        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1881        if self.RETURNING_END:
1882            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1883        else:
1884            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1885        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1886        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1888    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1889        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1890
1891        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1892        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1893            args = self.expressions(expression)
1894            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1895            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1896            values = (
1897                f"({values})"
1898                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1899                else values
1900            )
1901            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1902
1903        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1904        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1905        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1906
1907        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1908
1909        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1910            row = tup.expressions
1911
1912            if i == 0 and column_names:
1913                row = [
1914                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1915                ]
1916
1917            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1918
1919        if self.pretty:
1920            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1921            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1922            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1923            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1924            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1925
1926        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1927        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1928        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1930    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1931        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1933    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1934        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1935        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1936        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1938    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1939        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1941    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1942        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1943        if group_by_all is True:
1944            modifier = " ALL"
1945        elif group_by_all is False:
1946            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1947        else:
1948            modifier = ""
1949
1950        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1951
1952        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1953        grouping_sets = (
1954            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1955        )
1956
1957        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1958        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1959            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1960        else:
1961            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1962            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1963
1964        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1965        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1966            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1967        else:
1968            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1969            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1970
1971        groupings = csv(
1972            grouping_sets,
1973            cube_sql,
1974            rollup_sql,
1975            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1976            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1977        )
1978
1979        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1980            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1981
1982        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1984    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1985        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1986        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1988    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1989        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1990        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1991        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1992        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1993        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1994        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1996    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1997        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1999    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2000        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2001            side = None
2002        else:
2003            side = expression.side
2004
2005        op_sql = " ".join(
2006            op
2007            for op in (
2008                expression.method,
2009                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2010                side,
2011                expression.kind,
2012                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2013            )
2014            if op
2015        )
2016        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2017        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2018        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2019        using = expression.args.get("using")
2020
2021        if not on_sql and using:
2022            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2023
2024        this = expression.this
2025        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2026
2027        if on_sql:
2028            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2029            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2030            if using:
2031                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2032            else:
2033                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2034        elif not op_sql:
2035            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2036                return f" {this_sql}"
2037
2038            return f", {this_sql}"
2039
2040        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2041            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2042
2043        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2045    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2046        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2047        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2048        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2050    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2051        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2052
2053        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2054        if cross_apply is True:
2055            op = "INNER JOIN "
2056        elif cross_apply is False:
2057            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2058        else:
2059            op = ""
2060
2061        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2063    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065
2066        if expression.args.get("view"):
2067            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2068            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2069            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2070            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2071            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2072            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2073
2074        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2075        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2076        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2078    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2080
2081        args = [
2082            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2083            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2084            if e
2085        ]
2086
2087        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2088        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2089        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2090        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2091
2092        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2094    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2096        value = expression.expression
2097        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2098        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2099        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2100        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2102    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2103        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2104        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2106        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2107        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2108        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2109        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2110        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2112    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2113        expressions = (
2114            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2115        )
2116        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2117        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2119    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2120        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2122    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2123        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2124            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2125            return ""
2126
2127        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2128        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2129        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2130        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2131
2132        if wait is not None:
2133            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2134                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2135            else:
2136                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2137
2138        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2140    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2141        text = expression.this or ""
2142        if expression.is_string:
2143            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2144        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2146    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2147        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2148            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2149            text = "".join(
2150                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2151            )
2152
2153        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2154            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2155        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2157    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2158        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2159        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2160        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2161        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2162        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2163        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2164        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2165        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2166        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2167        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2168        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2170    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2171        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2173    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2174        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2176    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2178        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2179        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2180        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2181        interpolated_values = [
2182            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2183            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2184        ]
2185        interpolate = (
2186            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2187        )
2188        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2190    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2191        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2192        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2193        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2194        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2195        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2196        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2197        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2199    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2200        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2202    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2203        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2205    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2206        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2208    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2209        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2210        asc = not desc
2211
2212        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2213        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2214        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2215        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2216        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2217
2218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2219
2220        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2221        nulls_sort_change = ""
2222        if nulls_first and (
2223            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2224        ):
2225            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2226        elif (
2227            nulls_last
2228            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2229            and not nulls_are_last
2230        ):
2231            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2232
2233        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2234        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2235            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2236            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2237                self.unsupported(
2238                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2239                )
2240                nulls_sort_change = ""
2241            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2242                if expression.this.is_int:
2243                    self.unsupported(
2244                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2245                    )
2246                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2247                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2248                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2249                nulls_sort_change = ""
2250
2251        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2252        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2253
2254        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2256    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2257        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2258        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2259
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261
2262        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2264    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2265        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2266        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2267        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2268        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2269        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2270        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2271        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2272        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2273        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2274        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2275        definition_sqls = [
2276            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2277            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2278        ]
2279        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2280        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2281        body = "".join(
2282            (
2283                partition,
2284                order,
2285                measures,
2286                rows,
2287                after,
2288                pattern,
2289                define,
2290            )
2291        )
2292        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2293        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2294        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2296    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2297        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2298
2299        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2300            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2301        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2302            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2303
2304        return csv(
2305            *sqls,
2306            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2307            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2308            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2309            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2310            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2311            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2312            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2313            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2314            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2315            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2316            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2317            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2318            self.options_modifier(expression),
2319            sep="",
2320        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2322    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2323        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2324        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2326    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2327        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2329    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2330        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2331    ) -> t.List[str]:
2332        return [
2333            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2334            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2335        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2337    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2338        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2339        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2340        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2342    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2343        into = expression.args.get("into")
2344        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2345            into.pop()
2346
2347        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2348        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2349        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2350        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2351
2352        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2353        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2354            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2355            limit.pop()
2356        else:
2357            top = ""
2358
2359        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2360
2361        if kind:
2362            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2363                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2364            else:
2365                if kind == "STRUCT":
2366                    expressions = self.expressions(
2367                        sqls=[
2368                            self.sql(
2369                                exp.Struct(
2370                                    expressions=[
2371                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2372                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2373                                        else e
2374                                        for e in expression.expressions
2375                                    ]
2376                                )
2377                            )
2378                        ]
2379                    )
2380                kind = ""
2381
2382        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2383        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2384        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2385        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2386        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2387            expression,
2388            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2389            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2390            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2391        )
2392
2393        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2394
2395        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2396            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2397                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2398            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2399                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2400            else:
2401                table_kind = ""
2402            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2403
2404        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2406    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2409        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2411    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2412        if expression.expressions:
2413            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2414        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2416    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2417        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2418        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2419        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2420        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2421        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2422        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2423        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2425    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2427        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2429    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        kind = expression.text("kind")
2432        if kind:
2433            kind = f"{kind}."
2434        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2436    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2437        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2439    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2440        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2441        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2442        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2443        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2444        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2446    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2447        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2448        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2450    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2451        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2452            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2453            order = expression.args.get("order")
2454
2455            if limit or order:
2456                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2457
2458                if limit:
2459                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2460                if order:
2461                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2462                return self.sql(select)
2463
2464        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2465        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2466
2467        while stack:
2468            node = stack.pop()
2469
2470            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2471                stack.append(node.expression)
2472                stack.append(
2473                    self.maybe_comment(
2474                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2475                        comments=node.comments,
2476                        separated=True,
2477                    )
2478                )
2479                stack.append(node.this)
2480            else:
2481                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2482
2483        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2484        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2485        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2487    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2488        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2490    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2491        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2492        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2493        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2494        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2496    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2497        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2498
2499        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2500        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2501
2502        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2503            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2504                alias.append("columns", offset)
2505
2506        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2507            columns = alias.columns
2508            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2509        else:
2510            alias = self.sql(alias)
2511
2512        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2513        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2514            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2515        else:
2516            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2517                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2518            elif offset:
2519                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2520            else:
2521                suffix = alias
2522
2523        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2525    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2526        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2528    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2529        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2530        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2532    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2535        order = expression.args.get("order")
2536        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2537        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2538        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2539        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2540
2541        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2542
2543        first = expression.args.get("first")
2544        if first is None:
2545            first = ""
2546        else:
2547            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2548
2549        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2550            return f"{this} {alias}"
2551
2552        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2553        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2555    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2556        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2557        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2559    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2560        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2561        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2562        end = (
2563            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2564            or "CURRENT ROW"
2565        )
2566        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2568    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2571        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2573    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2576        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2577        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2579    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2580        return apply_index_offset(
2581            expression.this,
2582            expression.expressions,
2583            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2584        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2586    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2587        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2588        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2589        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2591    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2592        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2594    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2596        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2597            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2598                this = self.wrap(this)
2599            return f"ANY{this}"
2600        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2602    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2603        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2605    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2607        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2608
2609        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2610            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2611            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2612
2613        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2614
2615        if default:
2616            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2617
2618        statements.append("END")
2619
2620        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2621            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2622
2623        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2625    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2627        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2628        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2630    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2631        order = expression.args.get("order")
2632        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2633        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2635    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2636        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2637        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2638        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2640    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2641        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2642
2643        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2644            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2645        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2646            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2647        else:
2648            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2650    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2651        args = expression.expressions
2652        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2653            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2654
2655        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2656            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2657
2658        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2659            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2660
2661        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2663    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2664        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2665
2666        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2667        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2668            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2669
2670        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2672    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2673        return self.func(
2674            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2675        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2677    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2678        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2679        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2681    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2682        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2683        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2684        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2685        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2686        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2687        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2688        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2689        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2691    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2692        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2693        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2694        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2695        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2697    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2698        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2700    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2701        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2702        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2703        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2705    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2706        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2708    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2709        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2710        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2711            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2712
2713        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2715    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2716        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2717            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2718            if not callable(transform):
2719                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2720                return ""
2721
2722            return transform(self, expression)
2723
2724        if isinstance(expression, int):
2725            return str(expression)
2726
2727        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2728            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2729            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2730        else:
2731            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2732            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2733
2734        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2736    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2737        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2739    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2740        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2741        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2742
2743        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2744        if unique_keys is not None:
2745            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2746        else:
2747            unique_keys = ""
2748
2749        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2750        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2751        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2752        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2753
2754        return self.func(
2755            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2756            *expression.expressions,
2757            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2758        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2760    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2761        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2763    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2764        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2765        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2766        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2767        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2768        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2769        return self.func(
2770            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2771        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2773    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2776        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2777        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2778        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2779        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2780        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2781        return self.func(
2782            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2783            this,
2784            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2785        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2787    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2788        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2789        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2790        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2791
2792        if nested_schema:
2793            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2794
2795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2796        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2797        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2798        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2800    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2801        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2803    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2805        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2806        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2807        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2808        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2809        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2810        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2811        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2812        return self.func(
2813            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2814        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2816    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2820        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2821        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2822        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2824    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2827        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2828        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2829        with_ = (
2830            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2831            if expressions
2832            else ""
2833        )
2834        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2836    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2837        query = expression.args.get("query")
2838        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2839        field = expression.args.get("field")
2840        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2841
2842        if query:
2843            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2844        elif unnest:
2845            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2846        elif field:
2847            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2848        else:
2849            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2850
2851        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2853    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2854        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2856    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2857        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2858        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2859            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2860        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2861
2862        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2863            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2864            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2865
2866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2867        if this:
2868            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2869            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2870
2871        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2873    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2874        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2876    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2878        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2879        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2880        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2881        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2882        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2884    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2885        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2887    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2888        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2889        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2891    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2892        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2893        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2894        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2895        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2897    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2898        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2900    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2901        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2902        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2903        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2905    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2906        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2907        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2908
2909        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2910            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2911        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2912            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2913
2914        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2916    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2919    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2921        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2922        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2924    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2926        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2927        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2929    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2932        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2934    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2937    def and_sql(
2938        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2939    ) -> str:
2940        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2942    def or_sql(
2943        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2944    ) -> str:
2945        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2947    def xor_sql(
2948        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2949    ) -> str:
2950        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2952    def connector_sql(
2953        self,
2954        expression: exp.Connector,
2955        op: str,
2956        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2957    ) -> str:
2958        if stack is not None:
2959            if expression.expressions:
2960                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2961            else:
2962                stack.append(expression.right)
2963                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2964                    for comment in expression.comments:
2965                        if comment:
2966                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2967                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2968            return op
2969
2970        stack = [expression]
2971        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2972        ops = set()
2973
2974        while stack:
2975            node = stack.pop()
2976            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2977                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2978            else:
2979                sql = self.sql(node)
2980                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2981                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2982                else:
2983                    sqls.append(sql)
2984
2985        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2986        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2988    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2989        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2991    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2992        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2994    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2995        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2997    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2998        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3000    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3001        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3003    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3004        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3006    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3007        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3008        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3009        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3010        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3011        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3012        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3013        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3015    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3016        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3019    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3020        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3021            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3022        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3024    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3025        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3027    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3029        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3030        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3031        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3032        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3033        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3035    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3038        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3039        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3040        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3041        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3042        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3043        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3044        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3046    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3047        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3048        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3049        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3050        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3051
3052        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3053            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3054
3055        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3057    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3058        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3060    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3061        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3062        if chain is not None:
3063            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3064
3065        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3067    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3068        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3069        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3070        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3072    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074
3075        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3076        if dtype:
3077            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3078            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3079            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3080            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3081            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3082
3083        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3084        if default:
3085            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3086
3087        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3088        if comment:
3089            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3090
3091        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3092        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3093
3094        if not drop and not allow_null:
3095            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3096
3097        if allow_null is not None:
3098            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3099            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3100
3101        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3103    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3105        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3106            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3107        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3109    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3110        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3112        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3113        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3114        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3116    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3117        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3118            # Remove db from tables
3119            expression = expression.transform(
3120                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3121            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3122        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3123        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3125    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3126        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3127        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3128        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3129        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3131    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3132        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3133        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3135    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3136        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3137
3138        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3139            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3140        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3141            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3142        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3143            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3144        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3145            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3146        else:
3147            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3148
3149        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3150        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3151        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3152        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3153        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3154        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3155        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3156        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3158    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3159        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3160            return self.expressions(
3161                expression,
3162                key="actions",
3163                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3164                skip_first=True,
3165            )
3166        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3168    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3169        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3170        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3171        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3173    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3174        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3176    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3177        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3178
3179        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3180            case = exp.case()
3181            for arg in expression.expressions:
3182                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3183            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3184
3185        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3186
3187        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3188        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3189        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3191    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3192        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3194    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3195        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3197    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3198        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3199        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3200        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3201        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3203    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3204        return self.sql(
3205            exp.Cast(
3206                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3207                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3208            )
3209        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3211    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3212        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3213            return self.func(
3214                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3215            )
3216        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3218    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3219        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3220
3221        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3222            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3223
3224        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3225            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3226                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3227
3228        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3229            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3230                return self.sql(
3231                    exp.cast(
3232                        l / r,
3233                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3234                    )
3235                )
3236
3237        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3239    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3242    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3245    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3246        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3248    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3251    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3254    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3257    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3260    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3263    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3266    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3269    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3272    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3273        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3274            return self.sql(
3275                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3276            )
3277        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3279    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3280        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3282    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3285    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3288    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3291    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3294    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3297    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3300    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3303    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3306    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3309    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3310        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3312    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3315    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3316        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3318    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3319        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3320            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3321            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3322
3323        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3325    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3326        this = expression.this
3327        expr = expression.expression
3328
3329        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3330            this, expr = expr, this
3331        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3332            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3333                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3334
3335            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3336
3337        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3339    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3340        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3341        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3343        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3344        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3346    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3347        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3348        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3350    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3351        args = []
3352
3353        for key in expression.arg_types:
3354            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3355
3356            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3357                for value in arg_value:
3358                    args.append(value)
3359            elif arg_value is not None:
3360                args.append(arg_value)
3361
3362        if self.normalize_functions:
3363            name = expression.sql_name()
3364        else:
3365            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3366
3367        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3369    def func(
3370        self,
3371        name: str,
3372        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3373        prefix: str = "(",
3374        suffix: str = ")",
3375    ) -> str:
3376        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3378    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3379        arg_sqls = tuple(
3380            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3381        )
3382        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3383            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3384        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3386    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3387        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3389    def format_time(
3390        self,
3391        expression: exp.Expression,
3392        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3393        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3394    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3395        return format_time(
3396            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3397            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3398            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3399        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3401    def expressions(
3402        self,
3403        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3404        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3405        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3406        flat: bool = False,
3407        indent: bool = True,
3408        skip_first: bool = False,
3409        skip_last: bool = False,
3410        sep: str = ", ",
3411        prefix: str = "",
3412        dynamic: bool = False,
3413        new_line: bool = False,
3414    ) -> str:
3415        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3416
3417        if not expressions:
3418            return ""
3419
3420        if flat:
3421            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3422
3423        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3424        result_sqls = []
3425
3426        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3427            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3428            if not sql:
3429                continue
3430
3431            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3432
3433            if self.pretty:
3434                if self.leading_comma:
3435                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3436                else:
3437                    result_sqls.append(
3438                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3439                    )
3440            else:
3441                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3442
3443        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3444            if new_line:
3445                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3446                result_sqls.append("")
3447            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3448        else:
3449            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3450        return (
3451            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3452            if indent
3453            else result_sql
3454        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3456    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3457        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3458        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3459        if flat:
3460            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3461        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3463    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3464        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3465        if not property_name:
3466            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3467        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3469    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3470        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3472    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3473        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3475    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3477        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3478        expressions = (
3479            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3480        )
3481        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3483    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3485        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3486        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3488    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3489        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3491    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3492        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3493        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3494        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3495        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3496
3497        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3498        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3499            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3500            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3501            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3502            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3503        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3504            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3505                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3506            else:
3507                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3508        else:
3509            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3510        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3512    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3513        table = expression.this
3514        table_alias = ""
3515
3516        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3517        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3518            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3519            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3520
3521        this = self.sql(table)
3522        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3523        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3524        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3525        sep = self.sep()
3526
3527        return self.prepend_ctes(
3528            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3529        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3531    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3532        if expression.args.get("format"):
3533            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3534
3535        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3537    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3538        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3539            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3540            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3541
3542        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3543        if not fmt:
3544            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3545            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3546
3547        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3549    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3551        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3552        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3553        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3554        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3556    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3558        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3559        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3560        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3562    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3565    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3566        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3568    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3569        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3570        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3571        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3572        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3573        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3575    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3577        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3578
3579        if having:
3580            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3581
3582        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3584    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3585        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3586        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3587        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3588        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3589        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3590        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3591        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3592        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3593        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3594        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3595        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3596        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3597        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3599    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3600        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3601        if key_block_size:
3602            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3603
3604        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3605        if using:
3606            return f"USING {using}"
3607
3608        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3609        if parser:
3610            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3611
3612        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3613        if comment:
3614            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3615
3616        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3617        if visible is not None:
3618            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3619
3620        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3621        if engine_attr:
3622            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3623
3624        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3625        if secondary_engine_attr:
3626            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3627
3628        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3629        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3631    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3632        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3633        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3635    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3636        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3637        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3639        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3640        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3641        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3642        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3643        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3644        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3645        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3646        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3648    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3649        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3650            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3651
3652        case = exp.Case().when(
3653            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3654            expression.args["true"],
3655            copy=False,
3656        )
3657        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3658        if else_cond:
3659            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3660
3661        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3663    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3665        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3666        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3667        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3668        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3669        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3671    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3672        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3674    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3675        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3677    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3678        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3679        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3680        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3681        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3682        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3683        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3685    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3687        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3688        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3690    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3692        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3693        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3695    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3696        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3698    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3699        arg = expression.this
3700        if not arg.type:
3701            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3702
3703            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3704
3705        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3706            return self.sql(arg)
3707
3708        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3709        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3711    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3712        this = expression.this
3713        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3714            return self.sql(this)
3715
3716        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3718    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3719        this = expression.this
3720        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3721            return self.sql(this)
3722
3723        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3725    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3726        this = expression.this
3727        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3728
3729        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3730            return self.sql(
3731                exp.cast(
3732                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3733                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3734                )
3735            )
3736
3737        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3738            return self.sql(this)
3739
3740        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3742    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3743        return self.sql(
3744            exp.func(
3745                "DATEDIFF",
3746                expression.this,
3747                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3748                "day",
3749            )
3750        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3752    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3753        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3754            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3755
3756        unit = expression.text("unit")
3757        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3758            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3759
3760        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3762    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3763        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3764
3765        return self.func(
3766            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3767        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3769    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3770        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3771            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3772            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3773            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3774            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3775
3776        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3777
3778        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3779        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3780            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3781
3782        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3784    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3785        expression.set(
3786            "expressions",
3787            [
3788                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3789                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3790                else e
3791                for e in expression.expressions
3792            ],
3793        )
3794
3795        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3797    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3798        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3799        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3800
3801        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3803    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3804        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3805        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3806
3807        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3808
3809        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3810        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3811
3812        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3813        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3814
3815        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3816        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3817
3818        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3819        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3820
3821        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3825    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3826        to = expression.this
3827        value = expression.expression
3828        style = expression.args.get("style")
3829        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3830        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3831
3832        if not to or not value:
3833            return ""
3834
3835        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3836        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3837            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3838
3839        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3840        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3841
3842        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3843        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3844            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3845
3846            style_value = style.name
3847            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3848            if not converted_style:
3849                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3850
3851            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3852
3853            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3854                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3855            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3856                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3857            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3858                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3859            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3860                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3861
3862        if not transformed:
3863            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3864
3865        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3921    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3922        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3923
3924        if expression.expressions:
3925            upper = option.upper()
3926
3927            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3928            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3929
3930            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3931            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3932            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3933            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3934
3935        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3936
3937        if not value:
3938            return option
3939
3940        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3941
3942        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3944    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3945        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3946        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3947            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3948            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3949            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3950        else:
3951            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3952            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3953            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3954
3955        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3956        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3957
3958        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3959        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3960
3961        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3962        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3963
3964        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3965        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3966
3967        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3969    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3971        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3972
3973        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3974        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3975        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3976        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3977
3978        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3979        params = self.expressions(
3980            expression,
3981            key="params",
3982            sep=sep,
3983            new_line=True,
3984            skip_last=True,
3985            skip_first=True,
3986            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3987        )
3988
3989        if params:
3990            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3991                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3992            elif not self.pretty:
3993                params = f" {params}"
3994
3995        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3997    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3998        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4000    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4001        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4002        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4003        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4004        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4005        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4006
4007        if filter_col or retention_period:
4008            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4009
4010        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4012    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4013        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4014    ) -> str:
4015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4016        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4017        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4018        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4020    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4022        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4023        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4025    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4026        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4028    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4030        expr = expression.expression
4031
4032        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4033            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4034            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4035        else:
4036            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4037
4038        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4040    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4041        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4042            return self.sql(expression.this)
4043
4044        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4046    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4047        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4048        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4049
4050        if lower and upper:
4051            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4052        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4054    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4055        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4056        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4057        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4058        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4059        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4060        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4061
4062        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4064    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4065        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4066
4067        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4068        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4069            fill_pattern = "' '"
4070
4071        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4073    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4074        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4075        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4077    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4078        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4079
4080        parent = expression.parent
4081        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4082            parent = parent.parent
4083
4084        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4085            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4086
4087        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4088            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4089
4090        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4092    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4093        exprs = expression.expressions
4094        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4095            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4096        else:
4097            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4098
4099        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4101    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4102        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4103            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4104
4105        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4106        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4107        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4108
4109        if source_tz and timestamp:
4110            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4111                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4112            )
4113
4114        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4115
4116        return self.sql(expr)